MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY. Received ' k£, I ° - . 7 tJ> 9 Accession No. v.h...v.. Given by ' <■ A Place, ***flo book op pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab- oratory ujithout the pepmission of the Trustees. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. VOL. II, FOR 18 8 2. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1883. ro L ADVERTISEMENT. United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C. For the purpose of utilizing and of promptly publishing the large amount of interesting correspondence of the Fish Commission in refer- ence to matters pertaining to fish-culture and to the apparatus, methods, and results of the fisheries, Congress, on the 14th day of February, 1881, by joint resolution (H. Res. 372), authorized the publication annually of a Bulletin, a portion of the edition to be distributed signature by signa- ture, and the remainder in bound volumes. The present volume is the second of this series, and contains many announcements which are be- lieved to be of great importance in relation to the subject in question. Chas. W. Smiley, A. M., is the Editor of this volume. SPENCER F. BAIRD, Commissioner. m JOINT RESOLUTION authorizing the Public Printer to print reports of the United Statea Fiah Commissioner upon new discoveries in regard to fish-culture. Eesolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the Public Printer be, and he hereby is, instructed to print and stereotype, from time to time, any matter furnished him by the United Statea Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries relative to new observations, discoveries, and applications connected with fish-culture and the fisheries, to be capable of being dis- tributed in parts, and the whole to form an annual volume or bulletin not exceeding five hundred pages. The extra edition of said work shall consist of five thousand copies, of which two thousand five hundred shall be for the use of the House of Representatives, one thousand for the use of the Senate, and one thousand five hun- dred for the use of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. (IV) TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Atkins, Charles G. Sketch of the Penobscot Salmon-breeding establishment 373 Sketch of the Schoodic Salmon-breeding establishment 379 Arnold, jr., Isaac. Successful Propagation of Black Bass 113 Baird, Spencer F. Inducements offered Fisheimen to furnish Shad Eggs for the U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries 389 Bonchon-Rrandelj. Report relative to the Generation and Artificial Fecundation of Oys- ters, addressed to the Minister of the Marine and the Colonies 319 On the Sexuality of the Common Oyster (O. edulis), and that of the Portuguese Oyster (O. angulata). Artificial Fecundntion of the Portuguese Oyster 339 Behr, Ton. Five American SalmonidEe in Germany 237 Clark, Frank IV. Account of Operations at the Northville Fish Hatching Station of the United States Fish Commission, from 1874 to 1882 inclusive 355 Description of the United States Fish Hatchery at Alpena, Michigan 388 Collins, J. W. Appearance of Dog-fish (Squalus acanthias) on the New England coast in winter 8 Shad taken in Mackerel Gill-nets 95 Notes on the Movements, Habits, and Captures of Mackerel for the season of 1882 273 Notes on the Herring Fishery of Massachusetts Bay in the autumn of 1882 287 Correspondence relative to the Procurement of certain Fishery Implements for the Gov- ernment of New South "Wales. ; : 291 Report upon a Cruise made to the Tile-fish Ground in the smack Josie Reeves, Septem- ber, 1882 301 Notes on the Halibut Fisheries of 1881-'82 311 Couchman, J. W. Transporting Carp from theUnited States Fish Commission to Brazil. 382 Davis, H. B. Gratifying results of Propagating German Carp— Bream and Carp in ponds together— Table qualities of Carp 317 Eckardt, George. Carp Propagation and Blue Carp 168 Friedlaender, Oscar O. Noteo on the Menhaden Fishery 252 Gaines, Kemp, Growth, Spawning, and Distribution of German Carp reared from 20 fish furnished by the U. S. Fish Commission, November 29, 1880 392 Gallup, It. Frank. Catching Dog-fish for Oil and Guano 246 Gifford, George. The Disappearance of Sardines from the Vendean Coast, and its Causes. 13 Gilbert, Charles II. List of Fishes observed at Punta Arenas, on the Pacific Coast of Central America 112 Gillespie, Samuel. Growth and Food of Carp 300 Goode, G. Brown. The first Decade of the United States Fish Commission: its plan of work and accomplished results, scientific and economical 169 Notes on the Lampreys — Petromyzontidce 349 Griffith, William. Result of Planting Shad in the Ohio River 12 Habcrshaw, Frederick. Bringing Whale Oil from the Pacific to New York 215 Harding, Charles W. The Utilization of Localities in Norfolk and Suffolk suitable for the Cult ivation of Mussels and other Shell Fish 83 Harvey, M, Fishing and Consumption of Fish in Newfoundland 102 Haskell, E. H. Second Annual Appearance of Young Cod hatched by the United States Fish Commission in Gloucester Harbor in the winter of 1879-'80 112 Hay, O. P. On a Collection of Fishes from the Lower Mississippi Yalley 57 Haj ward, Jon. S. Catch of Fish in Newfoundland and Labrador in 1881 286 Henly, R. Striped Bass in Piankatank River, Virginia 75 Hcyser, E. Growth of Mirror Carp sent to Georgia by the United States Fish Commission. 18 Hiester, ChnrlesE. Answers to questions relative to Catfish 76 Hoek, P. P. C. Researches on the Generative Organs of the Oyster (O. edulis) 343 Horst, B. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Development of the Oyster (Ostrea edu- lis L) ....• 159 T VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Johnson, W.i in in I. Growth of German Carp sent to Savoy, Texas, by the United States • Fish Commission 14. Jordan, David S., and Charles H. Oilbert. A Review of the Siluroid Fishes found ontbe Pacific Coast of Tiopical America, with descriptions ofthiee new species 34 List of Fishes collected at Mazatlan, Mexico, by Charles H.Gilbert 105 List of Fishes collected at Panama by Charles H. Gilbert 109 Knight, William. A Bill proposed to the Maryland Legislature at the session of 1876, and entitled "An Act to regulate the Catching and to provide for the Preservation of Fish in the AVaters of the State and of the Potomac River " 265 Krauae, K. E. II . A Hybrid Plaice — Platessa vulgaris with Rhombus maximum 341 Iiefebvre, Alfred. The Proposed Introduction of American Catfish into the Rivers of Bel- gium 153 Leonard, J. A Report on the Edinburgh Fisheries Exhibition 80 Leonhardt, C Information concerning the Blue Carp 4 15 Leslie, Chas. C. Scarcity of Blackfish— Mortality of Codfish 132 Scarcity of Blackfish in the South 178 McDonald, Marshall. Distribution of German Carp by the United States Fish Commis- sion 94 Martens, J. B. Life in the Sea 253 Martin, S.J. Notes on the Fisheries of Gloucester, Massachusetts 15 Movements and catch of Mackerel 89 Notes on the Fisheries of Gloucester, Massachusetts 91 Morgan, George. Capture of Land-locked Salmon at Oswego, New York 15 Morriss, T. W. Spawning of Carp, in a Small Basin, at Brenham, Texas 27 IVicklas, Carl. Feeding Carp with Indian Corn 168 \ 11 »k ban in. M. A Simple Test to learn if Fish-ova are Impregnated 347 Nye, jr., Willard. Eels (Anguilla rostrata) in New Bedford "Water-pipes — Mackerel abundant in Amherst River 272 Osborn, John H. Shad Fishing on the Saint John's River 132 Phillips, Barnel. Holland Carp put into the Hudson River about 1830 25 I»oey, Felipe. List of Food-fishes brought from Key West, Fla.,into the Markets of Havana . 118 Rathbun, Richard. Dredging Stations of the United States Fish Commission steamer Fish Hawk, Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, commanding, for 1880, 1881, and 1882, -vith temperature and other observations 119 Notes on the Shrimp and Prawn Fisheries of the United States 139 Ryder, John A. Preliminary Notice of some points in the Minute Anatomy of the Oyster. 135 Observations on the Absorption of the Yelk, the Food, Feeding, and Development of Embryo Fishes, comprising some Investigations conducted at the Central Hatchery, Ar- mory Building, Washington, D. C, in 1882 179 The Microscopic Sexual Characteristics of the American, Portuguese, and Common Edible Oyster of Europe compared 205 Note on the Organ of Bojanus in Ostrea Tirginica Gmelin 345 On the mode of Fixation of the Fry of the Oyster 383 Smiley, Chas. W. Result of Planting Shad in the Muskingum River 32 Removal of Bass from Indiana to North Carolina by the United States Fish Commis- sion 116- The Proposed Use of Steamers in thAMackerel Fishery * 155 Method and Results of an Effort to Collect Statistics of the Fish Trade and Consump- tion of Fish throughout the United States 247 A Geographical Catalogue of Persons who have stated that they are interested in Fish- culture 393 Stearns, R. E. C. Suggestions for Transplanting Clams from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic 20 Stone, Livingston. Replies to Questions of Heir von Behr concerning Salvelinu-s fonti- nalis and Salmu irideus 9 Account of Operations at the McCloud River Fish-Breeding Stations of the United States Fish Commission, from 1872 to 1882, inclusive L... 217 Swain, Joseph. A Review of the Species of Stolephorus found on the Atlantic Coast of the United States 55 Swan, James <■« Shad in Pnget Sound 152 Swett, S. K. Decrease of Fish in Squoiuscot River, New Hampshire, on account of Refuse Matter from Gas Works 33 Tanner, '/.. I*. Report of an Exploring Trip of the Steamer Fish Hawk, in Chesapeake Bay in the early Spring of 1882 133 Occurrence of Fur Seals in Mid-Ocean 216 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII . Page. Van Antwerp, W. Growth, Spawning, Edible qualities, nnd Manner of Cooking German Carp ri'ci iv< (1 lii mi the U. S. Fish Com mission in 1880 300 Ward, I. eater F, List of Water Plants for Carp, Ponds 22 Wil«on. Charles A, Raising Brook Trout i:i Mineral Water 392 Wood, JN.Ij. The Fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico 19 Worth, S.Gr. Shad Hatching and Carp Culture 2>s A. poor season for Shad Hatching hi North Carolina 54 Von ku in. F. It. Carp Culture in Texas 28 YonI. John. Report upon the Management of German Carp by a Mississippi correspond- «at 310 MISCELLANEOUS AND ItEmiNTS. A m i lie he Rcrichfe. Transportation of Live Fish 95 Deutsche Fischerci.Zeitnng. The Cottbus Carp Trade 158 Fi.xkeri Tidcnde. The Scotch Herring Fisheries in 1882 117 The Codtisherics on the Coast of Norway 138 Gloucester Telegraph. Fishing for Shad in South American Waters 138 Itlagdcburgleiche Zeitnng. Stocking the Stettiner Haff with Carp 1 Scientific Farmer. Connectionof Abundance of Moss and of Black Flieswith Abundance ofTront 103 Snnland Tribune. Poisoned Water in the Gulf of Mexico 104 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FISH TRANSPORTATION. Page. Fig. 1. — Steamer for transporting live fish 96 2. — Tank for fieh devised by Mayor Schuster 90 3. — Aquarium for transporting fish 100 4. — Sectional view of the same 101 DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER. Fig. 1.— Segmenting egg with cells 166 2. — Same in older stage seen from above 166 3.— Embryo seen from the side 166 4. — Sime in optic section 166 5. — More advanced embryo seen from the side 166 6. — Same in optic section 166 7. — Embryo one day older, anterior view 166 8. — Same in optic section 166 9. — Embryo one day older. .. 166 10.— More advanced stage seen from the side 166 11.— Larva still more advanced with velar disk 166 12. — Larva still more advanced with cilia, &c 167 EMBRYO OF SHAD. Fig. 1. — Head and fore part of yelk-sac, just hatched 180 HATCHING APPARATUS. FIG. 1.— TheCbrk hatching troughs 358 DEVELOPMENT OF THE OYSTER. Fig. 1. — Young oyster adherent to McDonald apparatus 387 2.— Shells of fry of Oetrea edulis 387 3. — Yonng oyster about to become spat 387 4. — Spat shortly after transformation 387 5. — Spat showing manner of attachment 387 6.— Spat a little older 387 7. — Lower valve of oyster spat viewed from above 387 8. — Older spat detached viewed from below 387 9. — Same viewed from the edge 387 HOW TO STRIP SHAD. Fig. 1.— Workmen engaged in taking spawa 300 VIII BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1882 . STOCKING THE STETTINER IEAFF WITH CARP' [From the Magdeburgische Zeitung, No. 501, Magdeburg, October 27, 1881.] A truly gigantic enterprise which will greatly increase our sources of national wealth, if successful, is at present agitated by the well known pisciculturist, M. von dem Borne, of Berneuchen, viz, the stocking of all the waters belonging to the mouths of the Oder, i. e., the Stettiner Haff, the Papenwasser, and the Darnmsche See, with the highest es- teemed German food-fish, the carp. This large expanse of water, ex- tending far to the east and west of the usual steamboat route, is only partially know to the visitors of our Baltic watering-places ; it embraces an area of 87,000 hectares, or more than 15i German square iniles= about 214,985 (English) acres. If every hectare of water is on an average stocked with 250 carp it would require the enormous number of nearly 22,500,000 of carp, which, placed in these waters when young, would after three years be fit for the market, and would — even if dur- ing that period many of them should have been destroyed — furnish ample food to a vast number of our population. No one will deny that this is a grand idea, and the only question was for Mr. von dem Borne to furnish the proof of its practicability. Mr. von dem Borne has done this in the presence of a specially invited com- pany of representatives of the authorities most interested in this matter, by laying his plan before them on the occasion of large pond-carp fish- eries near his estate of Berneuchen. The result was such as to remove all doubt from the minds of those present as to the feasibility of Mr. von dem Borne's plan for increasing the productiveness of large sheets of fresh water. It may therefore interest our readers if we lay before them an outline of this plan. The main question is, whether it is possible to produce about 22 mil- lions of young carp in four years and place them in the Stettiner Haff. As pisciculture has reached a high degree of development in our coun- "Die Besetzung des Stettiner Half's mit Karpfen."— Translated by Herman Jacob- sox. Bull. U. S. F. C. 5 82 1 Ang . £t, 1882, 2 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. try, one might think that the easiest way of solving the problem would be to obtain the necessary carp from our piscicultural establishments, com- missioning them to furnish as many young carp as possible, paying perhaps 3 marks (71 cents) per 100. In this way the required number of fish could be procured in a comparatively short time. But at this rate the cost of stocking the Stettiner Haff with carp would be between 600,000 and 700,000 marks, not counting the expense of transporting the fish. Although this large sum might pay some interest at a future time, the expense of starting the enterprise would be too great, and the par- ties to profit by this arrangment would be the piscicultural establish- ments and not the people. Another way of solving the problem would be to adopt the method followed for a number of years by the eminent pisciculturist, Mr. Eck- ardt of Liibbincken, by which impregnated carp-eggs can be sent a great distance, and by which the German Fishery Association has succeeded in stocking with carp some of our largest German rivers within a com- paratively small number of years. The objection might, however, be raised that it would not be advisable to place the young fry of the carp, immediately after leaving the eggs, in the large basin of the mouths of the Oder, where strong winds often prevail and produce considerable waves. Mr. von dem Borne's plan, therefore, proposes that the parties most interested in the fisheries of the Stettiner Haff, i. e., the local authorities, should procure the required 22,000,000 of carp, not by buy- ing them, but in the simplest manner in the world, by raising them. In order to fully understand this plan, we have to give a brief review of artificial carp culture, as it has been developed among us in a most rational manner. Not only during the last few years, but for centuries, the nutritious, delicate, golden-yellow carp has been the favorite of our nation. The carp, the unassuming inhabitant of our numerous marshy ponds, has by its peaceful nature become almost as much of a domestic animal as the hog or the goose. All during the Middle Ages car}) formed the favorite dish during the Lenten season; and to-day more than ever it is, at certain seasons of the year, the favorite food of a large number of our population, and has, in the shape of " carp in beer," become a characteristic national dish of the Germans. The flesh of the carp contains (in proportion) as much nutritious substance as the finest piece of beef, and is peculiarly suited for making a savory dish; it is more- over entirely free from the disagreeable fishy taste found in many other fish. Owing to the very limited development of its brain, the carp pos- sesses but little ambition, and is content to grovel in the mud of our ponds, generally living on small aquatic plants, and only occasionally allowing itself the luxury of a larva or of an insect. Its excellent appe- tite is followed by favorable results sooner than is the case with any other artificially raised flishj and its well-rounded body soon assumes such proportions as to make the pike — that most voracious tisliof-prey — absolutely harmless, for the simple reason that no pike can be found BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 6 large enough to swallow such a carp. The carp occasionally, as in the famous carp ponds of Charlottenburg, near Berlin, reaches the age of a hundred and more years. It is well known that all fish have a very large number of eggs. As the "first incarnation" of the vertebrate type, the last and highest grade of which is man, their body has such very simple fundamental forms as to enable nature to produce its germs in every female fish in hundreds of thousands of copies. Even in this respect the carp occu- pies, on account of the large number of its eggs, a very prominent place among fish. It nevertheless indulges in the pleasure of spawning only once a year, in spring, when the warm May sun raises the temperature of the ponds to a comfortable condition. Then its " spawning season " commences, and the male and female fish niay be seen, principally dur- ing the early hours of the morning, swimming about in the water at a lively rate, emitting the eggs and milt among the reeds and aquatic plants. After eight to eighteen days thousands of young fish leave the eggs. In order to spawn successfully the carp must not be disturbed in the least, and it is absolutely necessary that no pike should be allowed in the pond ; for otherwise the carp will not spawn. All these peculiari- ties are of course well known to the pisciculturist, and he manages his ponds by showing due regard to them. If he wishes to obtain young fry from his carp, he is careful to keep pike out of his ponds; if, on the other hand, he wants to raise large carp, he prevents them from spawn- ing by placing a few pike'-in the pond. Much to the disgust of the carp the pike plays the part assigned him with the indefat ; gableness and energy of a policeman, keeping the carp constantly in motion and chas- ing them through every part of the pond. The result is a very fine, even breed of carp, with hardly any small fish, because the pike, pro- ceeding in a most summary manner, will simply devour any fish which are smaller in size than itself. The swiftness and strength of the pike are, however, also the cause of the presence of this most dreaded of all fish-of-prey in all our lakes and ponds, where it seriously interferes with the increase of the carp. As Mr. von dem Borne says in his work Die Fischzucht (Pisciculture), second edition, P. Parey, Berlin, 1881, the pike in one week eats a quan- tity of fish equal to at least twice its own weight. Owing to the very general occurrence of the pike, and the extremely small size of its fry, it is absolutely impossible to keep it out of carp ponds which are fed by a brook or other running water, and, mainly owing to this reason, the raising of a large number of young carp, even in carefully managed ponds, is connected with innumerable difficulties, of which Mr. von dem Borne treats fully in his book. After the cause of the evil has been recognized it is comparatively easy to remove it, viz, to select only such ponds as spawning ponds which have absolutely no connection with other waters. Such ponds are supplied with the necessary water either from springs or by rain or snow. Nearly every farmer can have such a 4 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. pond. Any alder-marsh or peat-bog with some water can be transformed into a carp pond by making a single dike with a pipe for drawing off the water, which can then be kept at the required depth of one meter, and be let off whenever necessary. By constructing this dike from the mud of the pond itself a deep place is formed, the so-called " fish-pit," in which, whenever the water is let off, all the fish gather, so that they can easily be caught. But to return to the plan proposed by Mr. von dem Borne : This plan simply consists in constructing such ponds near the shores of the Stet- tiner Haff in every place where this can possibly be done. In these ponds, which of course would be entirely free from pike, a number of millions of young carp could be raised every year, and in autumn trans- ferred to the Haff. If, for example, the entire 22,000,000 of carp are to be raised in three years, the ponds referred to would have to produce on an average a little more than 7,000,000 per annum. The principal point which Mr. von dem Borne desired to prove by the draining of the ponds last week on his estate of Berneuchen, was that whenever mature carp are allowed to propagate undisturbed, the result is absolutely enormous. It was his object to give his visitors a correct idea of a genuine fish harvest, such as will presumably be had in the future in the Stettiner Haff. In answer to Mr. von dem Borne's friendly invitation, a large number of gentlemen interested in pisciculture had come to Berneuchen, among whom we noticed Councillor von Biinau, superintendent of fisheries of the Stettiner Haff, and Forester Baron von Dicker, both from Stettin; Governor von Heyden, Forester von Waldow, Superintendent of Fisheries von Barnekor, all three from the district of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. The neighborhood of Berneuchen was repre- sented by Councillor Jacobs, from the district of Landsberg, Councillor von Kalkreuth-Hohenwalde, and the landed proprietors von Sydor- Biirenfelde, von KlitzingCharlottenhof, and others. With his usual hospitality, Mr. von dem Borne received his numerous guests in the old and spacious mano house of Berneuchen, and made them feel at home during their stay, which extended over a period of several days. Every day a district of about 2 hectares or 8 acres was gone over with the fishing apparatus, the water having been let off a few weeks before- hand, so that the fish had all returned to the deepest place in the pond. the so-called "fish-pit" referred toabove. In this place the water was only knee-deep. About 9 a.m. we reached the ponds, after having traveled for some time through dense forests. The dark, muddy water revealed absolutely nothing of its contents, although its agitated surface indicated that the muddy pool, scarcely measuring 30 paces in diameter, con- tained numerous small and a number of large fish, which manifested their presence by a greater or less commotion in the water. The fisher- men soon commenced their work, and during the first forenoon went over the so-called " Ma xa -pond." At the first haul the net could barely hold the densely crowded mass of fish, which, in spite of the most vio- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 5 lent struggle for liberty, was safely brought to land. Here the foreman of the fishermen dipped out the harvest with purse-nets, and deposited the iish in large baskets, transferring every time hundreds and thou- sands of small, golden-yellow young carp, which measured on an aver- age 5 to 6 centimeters, and occasionally some magnificent food-carp and delicate leather carp. Basket after basket did the men carry up the steep bank, and, separating the large from the small fish, put them in enormous tubs half filled with fresh water, where the little fish remained quiet, gathered iu dense crowds, whilst the large ones, as if by common consent, engaged in a sort of swimming race, swimming invariably to the left, round the tub, after having expressed their first astonishment by standiug on their heads and beating the water with their tails. The next part of the programme was to count the fish, by repeatedly filling a certain standard measure, and thereby calculating the entire quantity. A number of wagons were on haud, each supplied with several fish-kegs half filled with water, and the measuring and loading of the wagons soon commenced, the pond meanwhile having been emptied after seven or eight hauls. All this time the water was being let off. Although every one of our party was w T ell supplied with rubber boots and warm clothing, the fine rain and raw air soon seemed to penetrate even the thickest covering. It was, therefore, with no common pleas- ure that we were called on to witness the preparations for an original and savorv meal, which the forester of Mr. von dem Borne cooked with consummate skill, closely following the method employed by the ISTorth American trappers and sportsmen during their camp-life in the vast forests of the Western Hemisphere. Four plump carp were cleaned, washed, well strewed with salt and pepper both on the inside and the outside, and thereupon wrapped — each one separately — in a white sheet of paper well buttered. Bound this a sheet of newspaper was wrapped, the package was for a few moments dipped in cold water, and finally placed on a bed of hot coals of an open fire. Above the four carp came a layer of raw potatoes, which were thus baked in the ashes. The din- ing-room was just as primitive as the preparation for the meal, and con- sisted of an open frame shanty of the simplest construction. In about half au hour the " pepper carps" were ready for the table. Full of their own juice, they formed a most tempting and delicious dish, and being handed round, together with potatoes, on large napkins, satisfied even the most epicurean taste, and were washed down by an excellent bowl of punch (amid great merriment). After the meal we again turned our attention to the fish, which had meanwhile all been placed on the wagons. The result of this forenoon's work was 90,000 small and 528 large carp, this whole enormous number having been produced from 570 large carp, which Mr. von dem Borne had placed in this small pond — not quite as large as the Lustgarten in Berlin — in the beginning of April of the present year — only six to seven months ago. While the 570 large carp 6 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. had been reduced to 528 by fish of prey, thieves, and other causes, but had increased in weight, the total number of 90,000 beautiful young carp had originated in this time. There was, of course, not a single pike in the pond, and nothing whatever was brought up in the nets with the fish but a number of frogs, water-beetles, and sticklebacks. These three last mentioned are notorious enemies of the roe of the car]), and we were destined to learn on the following day how dangerous they may become to the roe. Wonderfully rich as was the result from the Maxa-pond, it was hardly the original intention that it should be so, for all these 90,000 young carp had come into life contrary to regulations and owed their existence to a mere accident. It had by no means been the intention that the 570 large carp should spawn in this pond, but they were intended to grow up into large food-carp. For the simple reason that they were not yet supposed to be ready for spawning, no pike had been placed in the pond with them, and about a dozen of the carp which were fully prepared for spawning had made good use of this circum- stance, and had done their utmost to stock the pond with young fish. If the pond had been intended for a spawning pond, twelve spawuers and six milters would have been sufficient for a pond of two hectares. This number had been placed in the large '' Daehsberger" pond, which, on the second day of our visit, was subjected to the same process of fishing as the Maxa-pond. We were now destined to witness the injuri- ous influence of other enemies of the carp than the pike. The young cai]> in this pond were on an average six times as heavy as those cap- tured on the previous day, and the total yield was twice as large as that of the Maxa-pond. The increase in the size of the eighteen carp originally placed in the pond was also much greater than that of the carp placed in the Maxa-pond ; but the total number of fish captured fell below the expectation. Even during the first haul we were struck with the unusually large number of sticklebacks which were brought up with the carp. Large numbers of these dangerous fellows were boldly pushing their way in the tubs among the pretty golden -yellow young carps, in some cases, it is true also struggling for life, as they cannot live without fresh air as long as the carp. "What damage was done by these fish of prey, which, by persistent attacks, even succeed in killing large fish, during one summer, to the young carp of the Daehsberger pond, m;iy be gathered from the circumstance that we only captured L'.">, COO young carp, whilst in other years as many as 100,000 to 150,000 had been caught every autumn. In stocking the Stettiner Half such circumstances should be taken into consideration, the recurrence of which may in this case be avoided by simply laying the pond dry and pouring in a solution of lime and water. The average production of a hectare of water may therefore be calculated at 45,000 young car]) per annum. In order, therefore, to produce the required number of 22,000,000 of carp in four years, all that would be necessary would be BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 7 to construct and put in working order about 120 hectares of spawning- ponds. According - to Mr. von dein Borne's former experience, the result would be still more favorable. He found that a good spawning- pond produces on an average 50,000 to 75,000 young carp, per hectare, in one year, so that 80 to 90 hectares of spawning ponds would be sufficient to stock the Stettiner Haff with the required quantity of carp within four years. In answer to the question, whether there are near the Stettiner Haff places suitable for the construction of such ponds, the administration of forests for that part of the country has returned an affirmative an- swer. In the extensive government forests on the western shores of the Stettiner Haff, between Uckermiinde, Politz, and the Papenwasser, there are a number of marshy places which, as far as their productive- ness as forest land is concerned, are practicall} 1 " useless. With very little trouble, in man3 T cases by merely constructing a dike with a pipe for draining off the water, very fine sjjawning-ponds for carp could easily be constructed in the immediate neighborhood of the Stettiner Haff. Only nine full}' matured carp per hectare, each weighing about four pounds, placed in these ponds in the spring, would in the autumn of every year yield 40,000 to 70,000 young carp per hectare. If one wishes to save the expense of constructing a number of ponds, it will be suffi- cient to commence with one pond, and let the young carp grow large enough to become spawning carp after three years, and then stock the other ponds with these carp. The transportation of the young carp to the Stettiner Haff could be accomplished by wagons or by trenches leading from the Haff into the ponds ; and this should be done every year in October. The question arises whether the Haff is suitable for carp 1 or if wind and Avaves, and the numerous enemies of the carp, especially the pike, or lack of food, or the salt water from the Baltic which occasion- ally enters the outer mouth of the Oder, might injure the carp? In reply we must say that the carp lives under the same conditions as the bream, and is everywhere found in its company; and since we find the bream in the Stettiner Haff, there is not the slightest doubt that the carp can also live in these waters. We must of course be prepared to see the Haff pike, that most voracious fish of prey, devour many thousands of the delicate young carp, and the herons, gulls, sea-eagles, and other ene- mies of the carp do their share in destroying the young fish. Very prob- ably the most dangerous of all enemies of the carp, man, will capture the young fish before they have reached their full size ; but there is no doubt that the flat bottoms of the Haff, which, especially in the west, are rich in the best humus, will provide an inexhaustible supply of food for the carp, and afford many excellent places of refuge. Against the fish-of- prey we shall declare open war, and as for man, the fiercest of these enemies of the carp, is concerned, we shall endeavor to limit his power for evil by carrying out a long and often talked of plan, viz, to build a swift small steamer, which will act as the policeman of the Haff. Mill- 8 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ions of young fish will be furnished for the Haff every year from the safe spawning ponds, and make up for any losses. Success will surely crown these efforts at last, and our waters will again be filled with fish. A successful experiment, like the one we have described, will soon be imitated in other parts of our country, and our lakes and rivers will no longer, as at the present time, when our freshwater fisheries have reached the lowest stajje of their decline, only yield an average annual increase of 2 marks (47 cents) per hectare; but will equal in productive- ness the finest and best cultivated portion of our land, and the income from each hectare of water will be at least twenty times as large as the one mentioned above. Whenever this takes place, our pisciculturists, and among them Mr. von dem Borne, with his GOO acres of water, will be the first to feel the consequences of the change, for fish will become much cheaper, and the fishing-waters will yield less income, in propor- tion as the condition of the lower classes of our population is improved by cheaper food. But this disinterested man, who has conceived the vast plan of stocking the Haff with carp, will not be influenced by such narrow considerations. The execution of this plan will prove a great blessing to our people, for we shall again see the carp, which has been banished from all tables except those of the rich on account of its high price, grace the table of our middle and poorer classes. APPEARlNtE OF DOGFISH (SQFAEFS ACANTHIAS) ON THE NEW ENOI,AND COAST IN WINTER. By J. W. COLLINS. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) In the Cape Ann Advertiser of February 10, 1882, I find the follow- ing paragraph: "Immense schools of dogfish, extending as far as the eye can reach, have appeared off Portsmouth, an unusual sight in win- ter." Is it not possible that the presence of dogfish in such abundance in that vicinity this winter may have something to do with the scarcity of the cod in Ipswich Bay ? It is a fact well known to fishermen that dogfish in summer will drive the various species of bottom fish from the grounds, and it may be that they are quite as voracious and troublesome to the cod in winter as in warmer weather. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C, February 18, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. REPLIES TO QUESTIONS OF IIEKR VOIV BEIIR, CONCERNING SALVE- JLINUS FONTINALIS ANB> NA B, .HO IIUDEA. By -LIVINGSTON STONE. I. — Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). II. — California Trout (Salmo iridea). 1. — We always hear now that Salmo fontinalis is rather a Salvelinus (and there is no doubt about it), but don't 3*011 have our Trutta fario f You use the words Salmo fontinalis and brook trout as synonymous, while formerly we thought brook trout to be our Trutta fario! A. It is true that the New England brook trout, sometimes called the American brook trout and commonly known by the name of Salmo fontinalis, is properly a Salvelinus (Salvelinus fontinalis), but the Trutta fario of Great Britain and the continent of Europe does not exist and has never existed in America. The common brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) of New England and other States of the Atlantic slope is not the common brook trout of Europe (Trutta fario). My following questions are meant about Salmo fontinalis (Salvelinus) : 2. — How heavy do they get °? A. — The Salvelinus fontinalis or common brook trout of the Atlantic slope varies very much in size and weight. Those found in high altitudes in the very small and usually cold rivulets that form the headwaters of the streams are the smallest, and often are of such diminutive size that they will not average over two or three ounces each. The larger and somewhat warmer brooks lower down, that are formed by the confluence of these little rivulets, furnish the next larger size of fontinalis, and so on till we come to the streams emptying into the ocean or the Great Lakes, where we find the largest of the species. Brook trout were thought to attain the weight of 9 or 10 pounds until the famous 10-pound trout caught by Mr. George Sheppard Page in the Bangely Lakes was declared to be Salmo oquassa, since which time the reputed maximum weight of fontinalis has had to fall a little, though I still think it possible for fontinalis to attain a weight, under the most favorable circumstances, of 7 or 8 pounds ; but Atlantic brook trout of 3 or 4 pounds are now getting extremely rare even in tidal streams, and in the brooks farther in the interior a pound or three-quarters of a pound is considered a good weight for fontinalis. 3.— Are they living in the same water with Trutta fario or Salmo iridea f A. — Salvelinus fontinalis has never been found naturally living together with Trutta fario or Salmo iridea. But since the introduction by human agency of fontinalis in Great Britain, fontinalis has occupied" the same waters with Trutta fario, and since the California brook trout have been brought to the Atlantic slope and Atlantic brook trout have been car- ried to the Pacific slope these two latter varieties (Salvelinus fontinalis ei Salmo iridea) have lived together in the same waters. 10 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 4. — What time are Salmo fontinalis caught by angling? A. — Salvelinus fontinalis can be caught by angling in the latitude of New York City from about the 1st of April to about the 1st of October, though I believe the close season begins somewhat before October 1. Before about the 1st of April the water is usually so cold that the trout do not feel much like bitiug, and after the 1st of October the spawning season is so near that they do not care then much about bait or any food. As one goes farther north the season for angling begins later and ends earlier. Trout are not found much south of the latitude of New York City, except at high levels. 5.— With what fly or bait? A. — Trout fishing in this country is done mostly with artificial flies. The different varieties of flies used are innumerable. Those which are considered the most effective, taking the season through, are perhaps the "Professor," "Montreal," "Jenny Lind," "Coachman," "Black Gnat," and " Cowduug." When bait is used the common angle worm is the favorite lure for trout, but grasshoppers, various flies and insects, and particularly the grub worm, are used at different seasons and in various localities with good results. Salmon spawn also makes a good bait when it can be procured. 6. — Do they spawn also in lakes like other Salvelinus, or only in riv- ulets like Truttafario ? What mouths ? A. — Atlantic coast trout, like Trutta fario, spawn almost exclusively in brooks and rivulets, and manifest a strong impulse to ascend the streams to a considerable distance. When, however, they cannot do better, they will, like other charrs, spawn on the shores of lakes, always seeking either a springy spot or a clean gravelly one, or both. Their spawning months vary very much, probably according to the tempera- ture of the water. At the Cold Spring trout ponds, at Charlestown, X. H., the trout almost invariably begin to spawn the second week in October, and end before Christmas. Farther north in ordinary brooks they spawn earlier. Farther south they spawn somewhat later, and in ponds or streams which are fed by springs large enough to keep the water of very even temperature through the cold months, the trout spawn from the 1st of November till some time in April. 7. — Are they thought good for pond culture ? A. — In America, Salvelinus fontinalis takes the first rank as a fish to be cultivated in ponds, provided the ponds are fed by springs or cold running water. Ponds not possessing these qualities are unsuitable for brook trout. 8. — There seem to be different kinds of Salmo fontinalis in United States, for when some time ago I received a box of eggs, which were first cabled as lake trout, but afterwards declared by you to be broolc trout (Salmo fontinalis), you especially remarked that these Salmo fontinalis eggs were of a special excellent variety, and my German BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 11 biccders observe that these eggs are so very large that they indeed had believed them to be lake-trout eggs. A. — There is, properly speaking, bat one kind of Salvelinus fontvnalis, but they vary very much in quality. For example, the small fish of the small, high rivulets, though very sweet and delicious when cooked, are not nearly as handsome aud plump and tempting in looks as the trout lower down, say in the Cape Cod aud Long Island streams. Neither do they ever grow as large, neither are their eggs as large. As to the eggs of the largest breed of brook trout are fully twice as large as those size of the eggs, I think I may venture the assertion that the of the fish of mountain rivulets. 9. — Of what State and lake were these? So I dare say you have dif- erent kinds of Salmo fontinalis. Is this the case? I bought, for some years, eggs of Mr. Annin and of the Charlestown Cold Spring trout ponds. Were these probably of the same kind as those you presented to me a short time ago ? A. — The eggs sent to Germany, and first by mistake called lake trout, were true u fontinalis." They were from Mr. Clarke's ponds in Michigan. They were eggs of the same variety of fish (Salvelinus fon- ti-nalis) as those received from Mr. Annin and from the Cold Spring trout ponds at Charlestown, 1ST. II.; but Mr. Clarke's eggs were from exceptionally fine fish. 10. — You observed that you had a Salmo iridea hatching-house in one of your Eastern States. Do the Salmo iridea spawn there at the same time as in California — in the spring ? Which months are the spawning time in California (McCloud Paver), and which in the Eastern States hatching-house ? A. — In the McCloud Eiver.they spawn from about the middle of Jan- uray to the middle of May; but so varied in elevation, latitude, and temperature is the State of California that it idea, I have been informed, is spawning somewhere in the State every month in the year. It is unquestionably true that the spawning season of Salmo iridea depends on the climate, that expression being understood to include all climatic influences of every kind. Salmo iridea spawns in the McCloud River, as has been mentioned, from the middle of January to the middle of May. In the eastern hatching-houses the same fish spawns in March, April, and May. 11. — Does this Salmo iridea keep, in ponds, its stronger appetite and greater vitality they speak so much of in California? I read in the small book "Fish Hatching, Fish Catching," that they are more vigorous in every way than the Eastern trout, but are not as handsome, have no carmine specks, but will live well in captivity and grow rapidly. A. — Salmo iridea retains its capacity for eating voraciously when con- fined in ponds, and when confined seems to keep up its well-deserved rep- utation for having a hardy and vigorous organization, though I should 12 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. hardly want to admit that iridea possesses any greater vitality than fontinalis. I agree entirely with your quotation from "Fish Hatching and Fish Catching," that they are more vigorous in every way than the eastern trout, but are not as handsome, have no carmine specks, but will live well in captivity and grow rapidly, except that I should want to substitute the word "hardy" for "vigorous." It does not seem to me that the California brook trout are more vigorous than the Atlantic brook trout, but they are undoubtedly more hardy. Mr. von dem Borne desires me to ask the following question : 12. — What kind of places do those four above-mentioned fishes select for spawning : running or still water, on plants, on stones, on gravelly or sandy or muddy bottom ; in deep or shallow water % A. — In reply to Herr Borne's inquiry, allow me to say that Salvelinus fontinalis and Salmo iridea always seek clear, running water and a gravelly bed where they may deposit their eggs. 13. — Is there only but one California trout, or is the trout of McCloud River the true rainbow trout, and has California another mountain trout ? A. — There is but one California trout which has been introduced into the Atlantic States, and, indeed, but one that has been much culti- vated. This is Salmo iridea, or the " rainbow trout," or the "Califonia mountain trout," or " McCloud River trout," these four names last given being synonymous. Whenever any one hears anything about Salmo iridea, or " rainbow trout," or " California mountain trout," or "McCloud River trout," he may know that the same fish is always meant under all these different names. California has several other mountain trout, but they are not yet generally known or much cultivated. 14. — Which one do you intend to send us ? A. — Consequently the California trout which Professor Baird intends to send to Germany is the fish (Salmo iridea) just mentioned. 15. — What month does it spawn? Californian Salmo quinnat spawns at home much earlier than our Salmo salar, but I might suppose that this entirely depends on the climate, because the California salmon which our Mr. Schuester raised in his tanks up to spawning time did not spawn in the California time, but in our Salmo solar time (November), or very near so. A. — This question has already been answered under 10, which see. RESULT OF PEAIVTIIVG SHAD I.\ THE OHIO RIVER. By WILLIAKE GRIFFITH. The first white shad of the season was taken on the Falls yesterday. This makes the sixth consecutive run of white shad in the Ohio river. Louisville, Ky., May 7, 1881. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 13 THE DISAPPEARANCE OF SARDINES FKOtI THE VEXDEAN COAST, AND ITS CAUSES. By GEORGE GIFFORD. [From Dispatch No. 66 to Department of State. Transmitted to the United States Fish Commission by J. C. Bancroft Davis, Assistant Secretary.] The sardine having' long been the principal item of export to the United States from this part of France, its disappearance is a matter of consid- erable commercial importance. For the fishermen themselves it is an overwhelming calamity, as the phylloxera is for the vintners on the Charente. The sardine has generally appeared on the Vendean coast about the 1st of May, and, following the shores of the Bay of Biscay northward, has furnished occupation to some 15,000 Vendeans and Bretons, and 3,000 boats. Formerly the annual catch was worth at least 83,000,000. But in 1879 the sardine suddenly disappeared for the most part, and the two following years having given most unsatisfactory results, it is with a heavy heart that the discouraged fishermen are now fitting out their boats for the season, which begins next month. The commercial houses engaged in the preparation of the fish for the market have in a measure escaped loss by advancing their prices, but charity alone keeps the fish- ermen from absolute destitution. This disappearance of the sardine has been coincident with an extra- ordinary change of climate, which has attracted the attention of meteor- ologists and other scientific observers, who have endeavored to establish some relation between the phenomena. The winter on the Breton coast is generally characterized by a low barometer and very frequent rains. During the four months from November, 1878, to February, 1879, for example, it rained at Nantes the extraordinary number of 79 days, and at Lorient 86 days, while the average rainfall in Western France during that time was about 15 inches. During the corresponding months of the season which has just passed it did not rain at all on this coast, and the high barometric pressure has been almost incessant. The storms, the arrival of which has ordinarily been predicted with so much accuracy from New York, have passed to the north, and the southwest wind, laden with moisture and bringing frequent rains, has given place to a dry wind from the northeast. And this in a somewhat less degree was also the meteorological history of 1880-'81, and of the preceding year. The effect of this high pressure and change of wind on the tempera- ture has been by no means constant. The average winter temperature in Western France is not far from 45° Fahr. But the winter of 1879-'S0, with its cloudless sky, was one of extreme rigor, during which the Loire was for several weeks frozen over. During the winter just past, the sky being often concealed by a thick fog, there has been neither snow nor 14 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ice on the Lower Loire. But the constant features of the three past win- ters have been the relatively small rainfall, the high barometer, and, for the first two years, the absence of the sardine on the coast during the following summer. Mr. Blavier, president of the Main-et-Loire Industrial Society, has recently read a paper before the Academy of Sciences, in which he ac- counts for these facts by the alleged displacement of the Gulf Stream, one branch of which ordinarily leaves the coast of the Bay of Biscay, rendering the climate very much warmer than that of corresponding lat- itudes in North America. The sardine always follows this warm cur- rent, and has now accompanied it in the new path which it has made for itself in the ocean. According to Mr. Blavier, the fishermen have no reason to anticipate a good catch until the breaking up of those great ice masses in Baffin's Bay which, it is believed, have for several years obstructed the flow of that cold arctic current by contact with which off the Banks of Newfoundland the Gulf Stream has hitherto been deflected toward Europe. If this view be correct, the coming season will be as unproductive as those which have preceded. In that case the misfortune of the Yendean and Breton fishermen, however regretable in itself, cannot fail to en- courage the " sardine" industry which has already acquired so consid- erable a development in the United States. United States Commercial Agency, Nantes, April 3, 1882. GROWTH OF GERMAN CARP SE1VT TO SAVOY, TEXAS, BY THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. By SAMUEL, JOHNSON. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) My carp which you sent me the 10th day of January last are doing well. Some of them are eight inches long. The shorest one that I re- ceived was one and a half inches long then and is four inches long to-day. They grow like China pigs, when fed with plenty of butter-milk. I feed them on the scraps from the table. They love good biscuit the best. They eat meat, bread, salad, or worms, and everything I give them. They are perfectly gentle and come at the rattle of a sheep's bell to be fed. 1 Iced thein as I would chickens, and intend to feed them every day. I have plenty of water for thousands of them. I would not take one hundred dollars for what you sent me. 1 can make them weigh five or six pounds this summer by feeding them well. Savoy, Tex., April 21, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. 15 INFORMATION CONCERTINO THE BLVE CARP. By G. LEONIIARDT. [Translation of letter to von dem Borne.] Honored Sir : In reply to your inquiry of the 14th instant I have to state, greatly to my regret, that 1 cannot supply you with blue spawning- carp this spring, as I finished the stocking of my ponds last week, and sent all superfluous fish, which happened to be very flue, five years old, and weighed from 7 to 8 pounds each, to the fish merchant. In autumn, however, I hope to be able to furnish you such fish from the Waage-gut ponds ; and I herewith make you this offer. For years these blue carp have existed here, mixed with the yellow carp / and I therefore cannot promise a pure and permanent breed. Owing to the lack of separate ponds, I cannot raise each hind by itself. I entirely agree with what Mr. E. Eckardt, of Liibbinchen, says re- garding this carp, in ISTo. 11 of the Deutsche Fischerie-Zeitung. In spite of its delicate nature, it stands our winters, which occasionally are very severe, as well as other carp. Hubertusburg, Saxony, March 16, 1882. CAPTURE OF LAND-LOCKED SALMON AT OSWEGO, NEW YORK. By GEORGE MORGAN. [Letter to Seth Green.] Dear Sir : A few days ago another salmon was taken here while pumping out a dry-dock ; this makes the fourth inside of a year. I am of the opinion that they are the offspring of those planted by you several years ago, while others believe to the contrary. I base my opinion on tbe fact that in thirty years previous none have been caught or seen here. I would be very much obliged if you would give me your opinion, and at the same time inform me when you will be ready to give us the Califor- nia mountain trout. Oswego, N. Y., April 20, 1S82. NOTES ON THE FISDIERIES OF GLOUCESTER, MASSACHCSETTS- By S. J. MARTIN. (Letters to Prof. S. F. Baird.) The George's vessels have not done much during the past week. They have to go to Grand Manan after bait. That makes the trips longer. Three halibut fares have been landed this week — small fares. Halibut bring a. high price. They sold all the week at 9 cents per pound for 16 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. white, and 6 cents a pound for gray. The outlook for fresh fish is good. Haddock have not sold less than 2£ cents per pound. Cod sold for 3 cents a pound all the week. There is a good school of cod in Ipswich Bay — large fish. Schooner Rising Star caught 20,000 pounds in three days. The rest of the boats have done as well. One of the Rockport boats set 12 nets where they were getting 6,000 pounds on trawls in one day. When they hauled the nets they got 200 pounds. They cannot get trawl- fish in nets, or net-fish on trawls ; that has been well tried. The southern mackerel fleet have not done much. The schooner Mertie Delmar was in ISfew York Monday ; she had 130 barrels of medium sized mackerel caught 30 miles southeast from Cape Henry. Last year the first mackerel were caught on the 23d day of March. The next were caught April 19, when 12 sail arrived with 1,705 [barrels] ; the next were caught April 25, when 30 sail arrived in ISTew York -with 6,000 barrels of fresh mackerel. The mackerel sold in New York Tuesday at 10 and Y> cents each. All the old mackerel are out of the market. The first salt mackerel will bring a good price. I hope the mackerel-catchers have learned a lesson during the past summer about selling their mack- erel out of pickle to save inspection. They began to sell mackerel out of pickle five years ago. The last three summers it has been carried on extensively. Mackerel were sold out of pickle last year for $4 per barrel and were sold afterwards for $10 per barrel. I don't see where the general inspector gets his pay when mackerel are sold out of pickle, that is, if he gets so much for inspection on a barrel. Perhaps the law is altered; if not, there is a good deal of hush money. When mackerel are sold out of pickle it hurts the market. When the speculators get them the fish are all culled over: number ones made of number twos ; number ticos of number threes and they make twelve twenty-pound kits out of a barrel. If a man buys inspected mackerel he gets what belongs to him; if they are not inspected he does not. The boat which arrived from Ipswich Bay this morning was the An- nie Hodgdon with 15,000 pounds of nice cod in two days fishing with trawls. A school of haddock has made its appearance on the coast during the past three days. One man, in a dory, yesterday, caught 500 pounds about one-half mile southeast from Eastern Point. If there is plenty of bait the small vessels will do well. The prospect is good for all kinds of fish. Gloucester, Mass., April 1G, 1882. There were 64 arrivals from the fishing-grounds during the last week: 25 from George's, 13 from tbe Western Bank, 2 halibut catchers, and 24 from shore fishing. Two vessels have done well seining herring : schooner Northern Eagle seined 200 barrels in three days; schooner Phantom seined 250 barrels last week. Two hundred barrels were caught in the trap at Kettle Island. The herring sold fresh to the vessels for bait at $2.75 per barrel. The herring have not been so plentiful on the coast BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 17 for thirty-five years. The half-sized herring came first, then the large ones. Yesterday schooner Northern Eagle seined GO barrels at the month of the harbor. They were schooling a distance of 20 miles yes- terday northeast and southwest. The herring are very large. Thero are four vessels with seines after herring. The George's vessels are doing better since the fresh herring have come. I told George he had better take his seine and try to seine some herring. He did so, and sold $430 worth in three days. It appears that all kinds of fish are in- shore. The mackerel are close to the shore. Vessels went out of New York Saturday and returned Monday morning with 150 barrels of mackerel — so they are close to the shore. Twenty-four thousand pounds of large cod were caught last week in 7 fathoms of water off New- buryport Bar. Haddock have been caught within one-fourth of a mile from the shore in large numbers. Whales are close to the shore. I will tell you about the water : The last day of April the water was 50 ; the first day of May it was 4G. This is the third time I have seen it work the same way. It happens on a high course of tides. Fresh fish are low. Halibut sold yesterday at 5 cents per pound. Haddock sold at 90 cents per hundred pounds and fresh cod at one and one-half cents per pound. Gloucester, Mass., May 7, 1882. During the past week there have been 36 arrivals from George's, aver- aging 18,000 pounds per vessel. Eight sail arrived from Western Bank, averaging 60,000 pounds to a vessel ; four sail with fresh halibut, aver- aging each 45,000 pounds ; twenty-two sail from shore-fishing, averag- ing 12,000 pounds to a vessel; 12,000 pounds have been landed by the small boats. Three hundred and thirty-five barrels of herring have been caught and sold here during the last week. Most of the herring sold at $3 per barrel to the fishermen for bait. Fresh halibut are low; they sold by the cargo yesterday at 4 J cents per pound. The price of all other fish is the same as last week. The seining of herring is a new branch of the business, in which there are four vessels engaged when there is a chance. I thought the storm would drive them off, but it did not seem to. The men went down to their nets this morning and ob- tained one-half barrel to the net. The weather has been very bad here since Wednesday, the wind northeast blowing a gale. There is a heavy sea on the coast. A large fleet of vessels is in the harbor waiting for a chance to go out. One salmon and one mackerel were caught in the trap at Kettle Island, Gloucester Harbor, yesterday. The salmon weighed 9 pounds and sold at 50 cents a pound. Gloucester, Mass., May 14, 1882. More fish were landed at Gloucester last week than any other during this season. There have been 53 arrivals from the fishing grounds — 11 sail from Western Bank, with good fares ; 28 sail from George's, with Bull. U. S. F. O., 82 2 Am^. 31, 1883. 18 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. good fares; 13 sail from shore fishing; one with fresh halibut, two with salt. Yesterday there were a half million pounds of fish in the harbor on board vessels. The weather has been bad on the coast. The fish- ermen have not had it so bad on the Banks. The schooner Joseph Story arrived last night ; she has been south after squid. The squid fishing is a failure this year. She has been gone three weeks, and got a buck- etful of squid. She has been as far as Newport, and found nothing but a few scattering squid. Two barkes arrived yesterday from Liverpool with cargoes of salt; so it has been a prosperous week for Gloucester. Some of the vessels are fitting out for Greenland. I think five sail will go this summer. Arrivals for the past week are as follows: 660,000 pounds salt fish from Western Banks, 560,000 pounds from George's, 65,000 pounds shore fish, 45,000 pounds halibut, 655 barrels mackerel. A good week's work. Gloucester, Mass., May 21, 1882. There have been 20 arrivals from Gloucester this week ; 18 from West- ern Bank; 3 from the Banks, with fresh halibut; 6 from the inshore grounds. Mackerel are taken now with seines in Boston Bay and off Chatham. Mackerel have advanced — salt mackerel 50 cents on a barrel. The de- mand for all kinds of fish is large. Dried George's cod have advanced 81 on a quintal. The fishing looks well for this season. There are no mackerel in the market. Schooner Geneva Mertis was here yesterday with 50,000 pounds of pollock caught with seines off Chatham. They sold at $1.75 per hundred pounds, which was the largest price paid for green pollock since the war. George's cod have been selling at $3.50 a hundred out of the vessel. All kinds of fish are high. You will find by the monthly reports on fish that the Western Bank vessels have done well. Two schooners arrived this morning from Grand Bank with halibut, 35, 000 each. A vessel is in Boston with 200 barrels of fresh maekerel caught off Chatham. Gloucester, Mass., May 28, 1882. GROWTH OF niKROK CARP SENT TO GEORGIA BY THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. By I!. IIEYSER. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) Thinking you might be interested in hearing from the mirror carp you so kindly furnished me with in November, 1879, I am pleased to be able to inform you that they have grown 1 finely, and now weigh from 4 to 6 pounds each, and at this time have a large number of young ones just out and hatching. Office of Clerk Superior Court, Morgan County, Madison, Oa., May 11, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 19 THE FISHERIES OF TJUK GULF OF MEXICO. By M. L. WOOD, U. S. N. It is my impression that when fully developed, as they doubtless will be some day iu the near future, the fishing interests of the Gulf will com- pare favorably with those of the fishing banks of Newfoundland. At present, however, there is no comparison. Another thing that will tend to make Gulf fishing" a financial success is the apparently insatiable appetite of the Cubans for fish, either fresh or salted. Even now the shipments of fish, alive, on ice, and salted, each week from Key West, are surprising. Now, of course, only small sailing vessels, badly equipped and with no means of keeping ice, and no facilities for obtaining it, go on the fish- ing banks, and in two days' time fill their wells with all the live fish pos- sible, and load with salt fish. If there happens to be a favorable wind, some of the fish are alive, and some that have died are still in good enough order to be either sent north from Pensacola or Cedar Keys, or shipped to Havana from Key West. One of the most delicious fishes of the Gulf, the red snapper, does not live well in captivity, and does not take salt very readily. As for myself, I prefer the red snapper to almost any other fish, excepting the pompano, when fresh. The "snapper banks," where the fish are caught, and several kinds besides snappers are caught together, are quite common in the Gulf; their location is always a difficult subject, excepting for a few of the well-known ones close to ports. The number of "banks" is much larger than is generally supposed, even by the fishermen themselves, as each skipper always holds in re-, serve some favorite spot, and if necessary to prevent intrusion, will fish for hours with unbaited hooks when a supposed rival approaches. Again, as there has been no supply, there is but little demand, and the fish caught near the northern Gulf coast bring very low prices. When a successful fishing vessel comes in the market is glutted, and at other times fish are scarce and the prices high. At Pensacola some steps are being taken to handle the fish economi- cally, but as yet nine-tenths of the fish — the best ones — are sent to New Orleans. I believe the places for catching fish in the Gulf are very numerous, and the quantities offish practically inexhaustible. I also believe there is a sort of migration from one sort of bottom to another, depending upon causes which at present, owing to the lack of in- vestigation, are involved in obscurity. This investigation, I very much fear, will not be undertaken or carried out successfully until the gov- ernment takes it in hand. No private individual or corporation could afford to devote the time necessary to hunting up the rumored banks, 20 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. or examining a place from which the fish have gone to find out the reason of their departure. There is no reason that I can see why, if the fish banks of the Gulf were as well marked out and the habits of the fishes as well understood as they are on the Newfoundland banks, the fishing interests of the Gulf should not develope enormously. By the refrigerator-car plan— both afloat and ashore — every city and town of the United States would be- come a ready market for a moderate snpply of fresh fish. Such a plan would require the attention of capitalists to be drawn to its advantages, and these advantages would only show themselves when the sources of the supply have been accurately determined, and the conditions affect- ing the supply well enough investigated. This would require the loca- tion and the limits of each "snapper" bank to be practically determined, so that steamers fitted for refrigerating could make the rounds of a cer- tain number of banks, and lose no time hunting a very indefinite spot, such as most of the snapper banks of the Gulf are at present. U. S. S. Gedney, Navy Yard, Neic York, May 17, 1882. SUGGESTIONS FOB TRANSPLANTING CLAMS FROM THE PACIFIC OCEAN TO THE ATLANTIC. By R. E. C. STEARINS. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) In relation to the transplanting of the West American clams, Ghj- cimeris gcnerosa, Saxklomus aratus, and SchizotJucrns nuttallii, to the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, I have to submit the following: Immediately after the receipt of your letter of the Gth February, re- ferring to the first species, and Mr. Hemphill's recommendation thereof as a valuable edible, I took the necessary steps to inform myself as to the best locality from which to obtain a supply, and subsequently made arrangements, which are now pending, for a supply to be sent me promptly by express as soon as the tides are low enough to permit the same to be obtained, and gave particular and explicit instructions as to the manner of packing, so that no lack of care need occur to prevent the successful transmission as far as San Francisco. Transmission is much more direct, and less time is lost, by forwarding from Olympia on Budd's Inlet (which appears, everything considered, to be the best place to obtain them), via Portland, Oreg. ; Portland and Olympia being con- nected by rail, and the steamer communication between Portland and San Francisco being more frequent than by the Paget Sound steamers to San Francisco. The Portland market is supplied with Glycimcris from Budd's Inlet. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 21 It is not unlikely that the Saxidomi, recommended by Mr. Dall, and my favorite Schizothwrus, can also be obtained at the same place and at the same time, which will save great trouble and expense and kill three "birds with one stone." I am of the opinion, however, that in order to be successful, I shall have to go up myself. As to the method of con- veyance, after a careful consideration of the question, and of Mr. Hemp- hill's views, as expressed in his letter to you, of October 17, 1881 (page 200 of Bull. U. S. F. C), I think the plan suggested by him, in the main, is the one to be pursued, for I do not believe that any fair per- centage of either species can be carried through alive to the Atlantic coast packed in seaweed. All of these species are Gapers, otherwise I should think the chances better. The lowest tides occur in the last of May and the first half of June, when the weather is quite warm on this side of the continent, and often so on the Atlantic side. Ice, a good supply of salt water procured outside of the bay of San Francisco, where it is pure, and careful attention while on the cars will also be needed; and finally, the locality on your side wherein to plant them must be determined on beforehand. As to the character of the station in Budd's Inlet, as to climate and sea-bottom, reference to the Coast Survey chart of said inlet, and to the Coast Pilot of Washington Terri- tory, will furnish most of the information necessary in this direction. Dr. Dall knows the climatal peculiarities. I have discussed this point with various intelligent persons on this side, and all parties, I find, agree with me, that the Chesapeake Bay region is more likely to meet the requirements than any other place on the Atlantic side. You are better able to judge of this matter correctly than we are here. I have a letter from Hemphill at hand. He informs me that his inten- tion is to be here by the middle of this month and to go east to Minne- sota by June 1, if possible. It occurs to me that an arrangement might be made with him to superintend the transmission overland and take care of the tanks en route, for then we should be morally certain that no pains would be spared to make the experiment a success, so far as the transshipment part is related to the whole matter. If you are disposed to authorize the expense, as indicated in the fore- going, and the employment of Mr. Hemphill to take charge, as sug- gested, from San Francisco, to your hands, or your orders, please tele- graph me at once, as I want every moment to push matters, so that the plan above outlined may be carried out. Tanks must be made and cans for sea- water, &c, got together, and arrangements made with the railroad folks, so that there will be no hitch to endanger our movements by delays. Berkeley, Cal., May 8, 1882. 22 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. LIST OF WATE« PLA1VTS FOR CARP PONDS. By LESTER F. WARD. [The following list embraces only such plants as were named in a list furnished by Mr. Kudolph Hessel, Superintendent of the Carp Ponds. The names given in that list where obsolete are placed in par- entheses, the modern ones standing before them. The vernacular name of each is added whenever it is known, and the localities of the Ameri- can species are given according to the best authorities. When found in the vicinity of Washington the particular locality is mentioned. In the case of exotics the general region of the globe is stated.] BANUNCULACE^. Crowfoot family. Ranunculus aquatilis, L. — White Water-Crowfoot. The type is rare, but the var. trichophyllus, Gray, is common in the United States. The var. heterophyllus, DC. (B. heterophyllus, Weber), is chiefly a European form. Banunculus multi/idus, Pursh. (Banunculus fluviatilis, Bigel). — Yellow Water-Crowfoot. East New England to South Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Northwest. CaUha palustris, L. — Marsh Marigold. Cowslips. Common North and West. NYMPH^ACE^. Water-Lily family. Cabomba Caroliniana, Gray. (Not in original list, but known to be in the carp ponds. Probably wrongly named.) Florida to North Carolina and westward. Xymphcca odorata^ Ait. — Sweet-scented white Water-Lily. Found at Great Falls and below the Long Bridge. Common in the Northern States. Xymphcea tuberosa, Paine. — Tuber-bearing Water-Lily. Western New York to Michigan, Illinois, and probably in the South- ern States. Ntiphar luteum, Smith. — Smaller yellow Pond-Lily. Chiefly European; the var. pumilum, Gray (N.pumilum } Smith), is not rare northward in the United States. BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH CO&IMISSION. 23 HALOEAGEiE. Water Milfoil family. Myriophyllum. — Water-Milfoil. Six species are found in the Northern United States, of which M. spicalum is the most common, and occurs sparingly near Washing- ton. Hippuris vulgaris, L. — Mare's Tail. New York to Kentucky and northward; rare in the United States; more common in Europe. ONAGEACE^E. Evening Primrose family. Trapa natans, L. Europe, Siberia. UMBELLIFEE^E. Parsley family. Oenanthe sarmmtosa, Presl. (Pliellandrium aquaticum, L.). Oregon and Washington Territory. PEIMULAOE^l. Primrose family. Rottonia injlata, Ell. (H. palustris, Pursh.). — Featherfoil. Massachusetts to Louisiana. LENTIBULABIACE^E. Bladderwort family. Utricularia vulgaris, L. — Bladderwort. Throughout the North and West POLYGONACE^. Buckwheat family. Polygonum (amphibium, LJ). — Water Persicaria. Common. Has been sparingly found near Georgetown, D. C. CEEATOPHYLLAOE^]. Hornwort family. Ceratophyllum demersum, L. — ELornwort. Abundant. 24 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ARACE^3. Arum family. Acorus calamus, L. — Sweet Flag. Calamus. Common. LEMNACE^]. Duckweed family. Lemna trisulca, L.— Duckweed. Duck's-rneat. Widely diffused. Lemna minor, L. America and Europe. Lemna gibba, L. Chiefly in Europe, but has been found in Arizona. TYPHACE^E. Cat-tail family. Typlia latifolia, L. — Cat-tail Flag. Very common. Typlia angustifolia, L. — Narrow-leaved Cat-tail. Less common, but found in this District and notably in a pond near the foot of Eighteenth street. NAIADACE.E. Pond-weed family. Potamogeton natans, L. — Pondweed. Common. ALISMACE^E. Water-Plantain family. Alisma natans, L. — Water-Plantain. Europe, Siberia. Sagittaria variabilis, var. latifolia, Eng. (Sagittaria latifolia, Willd.). — Arrowhead. Common. Butomus umbellatus, L. Europe; Northern Asia. HYDROCHAEIDACE^E. Frog's-bit family. Anacharis Canadensis, Planchon. {Elodea Canadensis, Michx.). — Water- weed. Common. Vallisneria spiralis, L. — Tape-grass; Eel-grass. Common. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 25 Iris pseudacorus, L. Europe; Siberia. IBIDACEJ3. Iris family. JUNGACE^. Bush family. Juncus effusus, L. (=J. conglomerate, L.). — Common Kusk. CYPEBACE^E. Sedge family. Seirpus laeustris, L.— Bulrush. Tule. Common. GRAMI^E^E. Grass family. Zizania aquatica, L. — Indian Bice. Water Oats. Potomac Flats, "&c. Glyceria aquatica, Smith. — Eeed Meadow-grass. Common northward. Glyceria Jluitans, E. Br. Common, but has not been found nearer Washington than Great Falls. Festuca Jluitans, Leeds. Europe. Phragmites communis, Trin. (Arundo Phragmites, L.). — Eeed. Cane. CEYPTOGAMIA. Azolla Caroliniana, Willd. Kew York to Illinois and southward. HOLLAND CARP PUT INTO HUDSON RIVER AROUT 1S30. By BAR1VET PHILLIPS. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) To-day Mr. James Benkard, vice-president of our fish cultural asso- ciation, told me that his grandfather, Capt. Henry Eobinson, had, about 1830, first brought carp from Holland and put them in his ponds at Newburg, and that he had therefore reason to suppose that the carp in the Hudson were derived from these. In Frank Forester's " Fish and Fishing," of 1849, page 166, you may find a statement to this effect, which Mr. Benkard says is substantially correct. I have thought these data might be useful when the whole history of the carp in American waters is to be written up. Times Office, New York, May 31, 1882. 26 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION SHAD-HATCHING AND CARP CULTURE. By S. G. WORTH. (Mcnthly report, Department of Agriculture, North Carolina, February, 18S2.) The chief feature of the present month in fish culture is the refitting of the shad hatchery on the Albemarle Sound. Such changes and im- provements are now being made that we hope to do a work double that of any previous year. The hatching capacity, which is now four mil- lion, will be increased to nine million a week. The additional space added will be occupied by hatching vessels on a new and improved method, the eggs being hatched in glass bottles. Fifty thousand eggs are to be hatched in a bottle of one gallon capacity, and during the pro- cess everything can be seen, and every dead egg removed without re- moving the stopper. For this improvement the country is indebted to Col. Marshall McDonald, of Virginia. The method heretofore followed consists in placing the eggs in large cones, three feet high (the large end turned upwards), and applying a constant jet of water in from below. The apparatus of this kind being yet on hand and in good order, will still be used, the glass bottles being added to afford greater capacity. This addition, with such other im- provements as are now being added, will place North Carolina on a par with any State, and I hope that results will prove us even in advance. We shall be more completely equipped than we have ever been, and with a stronger purpose. We confidently expect to double the catch in our waters in a few years with native fish, introducing at the same time such other fish as are considered of value. No hatching of the land-locked salmon or California trout was under- taken the past season, owing to the fact that they were adapted to a rather restricted class of streams, while the German carp will prove more valuable in the same localities, and in the whole State besides. The German carp will suit the western counties, and will at the same time do equally well in every other quarter of the State. While the land-locked salmon and California trout already introduced are most excellent game fish, we have considered tha* but a secondary matter. While they suit the cold mountain streams, they do not suit the middle or lower streams; aud while the carp cannot be recommended especially for mountain streams, there is not a mountain farm that does not pos- sess every facility for raising them, and in quantities to supply a family. We therefore deem it better to suspend the salmon and trout work for one season, at least, and make necessary arrangements to propagate the carp at home, and in larger quantities than we could hope to procure them from the United States Commissioner at Washington. During the past three months 2,500 l have been received and shipped by express to all parts of the State. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 27 The demand for carp in the State is far beyond our present ability to supply. This is not Surprising when it is known that they grow from min- nows to three and four pound fish in one summer. And this is not all. They do this without being artificially fed ; and if it should for any reason become desirable to feed them, they will eat grain and vegetables freely. Names are daily added to the list of applications. It is a great pleasure to note this fact, but we beg all those who applied later than January 20 not to expect any fish before October or November, for it is impossible to supply them. The board of agriculture, at the last meeting, favored the construc- tion of suitable ponds for breeding the carp at home. Much care has been taken in the selection of a site for the ponds near Ealeigh. We pro- pose to build breeding ponds and hatch sufficient quantities annually to supply many ponds throughout the State. From many sources I learn that dams have broken, and that the carp have escaped, and as a general thing the application is renewed. Now, 'it cannot be expected that we should furnish such ponds with another shipment the present season, until, we have sent each applicant one lot. This we have to refuse, for we cannot get fully around the first time with the short stock at our command. The dams should be packed down and built at least two feet above the level of the water, and as a rule, the waste water should be carried around one end of the dam, through the hillside. No time should be lost during the present spring season to introduce water plants into the ponds containing the carp. For this purpose the water lilies and cresses are excellent, and in no case should the ponds be left unprovided. SPAWXHVG OF CARP IIV A SMALL BASBiV AT B BSE IV HAW, TEXAS. By T. W. IHORRISS. (Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.) Two years ago I procured of your department some carp. The largest are now about 2 feet long. This spring I constructed a small basin in my yard in which I placed five of them — a haphazard move, for I did not know the male from the female. About the 10th of this month I discovered a large number of young fish, which are now about 2 inches in length. My object in this arrangement is to hatch them in my small pools and, when large enough to take care of themselves, to place them in my ponds, of which I have four separated by dams. The ponds altogether are about 400 yards long, from 50 to GO feet wide, and vary- ing in depth from three to ten feet, with muddy bottom. Beenham, Tex., May 17, 1882. 28 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CARP CULTURE IIV TEXAS. By F. L.. YOAKUM, Palastine, Tex. [From the Galveston Weekly News, March 9 and 16, 1882.] If young carp fish, three or four inches in length, be placed in a lake or brook in March, in September following they will be grown to the length of from ten to fourteen inches, and will weigh sometimes from one to one and a half pounds. It requires three years to bring a trout up to one pound. Such is the wonderful growth of this new food-fish now being introduced into our lakes and brooks for propagation. These fish subsist mainly upon vegetable food, but will not refuse a worm or insect when opportunity offers. " They grow in any kind of water," but we must beware of waters tinged too strongly with turpentines or products of coal distillation. They grow faster with good, natural, and abundant food, in nice, pure water. Too much feeding injures the wa- ter by the souring of the remaining surplus. The natural food of this fish is the products of various water plants, some of which I will now proceed to describe : 1. The great Galadium esculentum. — This plant grows luxuriantly in water twelve inches deep, or on the banks hard by. It has esculent roots, filled with farinaceous and amylaceous matter, and is in some places used as human food; hence the specific name. The plant is well suited to lakes; also as fish shelter as well as food. Planted in the margin of the lake, six to twelve inches deep in water, it will throw up continuously, three to four feet above the surface, immensely large leaves, sometimes two or three feet wide and three or four feet long, giving the shores or banks quite a subtropical appearance in the size and splendor of its foliage. 2. Nymphaza odorata. — This charming water plant grows in from a few inches of water to four feet deep, and yields an abundance of farina- ceous matter in its stems, leaves and roots. (See Case's Botanical In- dex, page 98.) It grows luxuriantly in water, and its leaves, one foot broad, lie flat upon the water, affording shade to the finny tribes be- neath. Its curling stems make a safe lodgment for the eggs of the carp, and its pure white flowers which dot the lake over, filling the val- ley with fragrance, ripen seeds which are full of nutrition. 3. Kuphar advena. — Calhoun, of the Southern Stock Journal, is mis- taken as to the species (lutcum) of our Nuphar. The yellow flowers of this species have the odor of brandy, and leaves both floating and erect. This is the American species. The luteum is the European, and the seed contain a large quantity of farinaceous matter, and some species are used for food in other countries. When planted in a lake or aquarium it makes a more vigorous growth than any other variety BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 29 of aquatic plant, consequently it contributes more toward purifying the water by the large amount of oxygen supplied it, and carbon absorbed from it, which is so important to pure water and healthy animal life in confinement. (See Case's Botanical Index, page 8.) We fear that its rapid growth renders it too uncontrollable in small ponds, but such luxuriance of development well suits it to large lakes, where the ama- teur will experience much pleasure in watching its triumphant progress over the waters. 4. Nelumbium lutcum. — There is a strange grandeur and an exquisite beauty about this plant which excite the admiration of all romantic lov- ers of flowers, a sweet lovliness about them which creates a desire to possess and cultivate some of them. All water lillies are lovely, but this one is gorgeous. The flowers are a light canary color, varying from light to pink, and often five inches in diameter, and exquisitely fragrant. The seed receptacle, like the flowers standing out of the wa- ter, is a flat, circular surface, and constitutes the base of an inverted cone, which is perforated with holes for the accommodation of the nuts. These are the water chinquepins. " The root contains a large percent- age of mucilaginous and farinaceous matter, and is said to be one of the best known native vegetables for food." (See Botanical Index, page 77.) " The tubers are farinaceous and edible." (See Gray's Manual of Botany, page 56.) We are apprehensive, also, that the plant would not suit small lakes on account of its rapid growth ; it might fill them up with roots ; but give it the great lakes of Texas, and we vouch for its success and its sublime developments m yielding food and shelter. 5. The Nasturtium officinallis, or Cress. — This is a favorite fish salad for the table of the Cyprinse. They devour it greedily. " They are partic- ularly fond of water cresses and other juicy plants." (See Dr. Hessel in American Agriculturist, where he teaches us that carp fish can hear.) Plant the cress hard by the edge of the lake, and it will send its limbs far out in the water. 6. Zizania aquatica, or Water Bice. — This grass produces many slender, linnear seeds, which are farinaceous and well suited to water. When alone it flourishes. It grows in shallow water, which is always found around well-constructed ponds. " The luxuriant water oat should be planted in every pond devoted to carp culture. These plants yield great quantities of seed, of which the fish are extravagantly fond." (See Calhoun, in the Southern Stock Journal, vol. G, No. 21, in which he calls it Zinania aquatica, or Water Oat), which shows, at least, that he was striking at the same thing. 7. Typha laUfolia, or Water Mace. — This is a grand marsh or aquatic herb with nerved, linear, sessile leaves. The flowers and fruit are ele- vated on a dense cylindrical spike, terminating the stem, at least six feet above the roots, but sometimes ten feet. It will grow in water per- haps six feet deep. Its small nutlets fall into its native water and germinate in the mud at the bottom. All seeds during the process of 30 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. germination are sweet and nutritious. It gives a peculiar aspect to lakes that is both rare and pleasant. The adornment of our artificial lakes should receive some attention. When we visit some of our natu- ral lakes we find them almost filled and surrounded with strange and beautiful forms of vegetable life, which accompaniments render these places a great deal more attractive. The very wildness which these curious children of nature are capable of superadding to a pure and placid lake surrounded by echoing shores and reverberating hills, min- gle with the charms and pleasures of such places and sweeten and hallow such impressions of the beautiful and picturesque upon those seeking the innocent enjoyments of life. We should add these native ornaments and rare water plants to our convenient lakes and make them the most delightful of the home scenes and associations. 8. Pancratium rotatum. — In the evening and morning, and when the clouds are over the sun, this plant unfolds its snow-white imperial flow- ers, all arrayed in royal robes, and bearing a white, delicate crown about two feet above the water or marsh. It is well styled the " wild crown imperial." 9. Saururus cernuus. — This is rather a delicate plant among the aqua- tic plants. It waves a small white plume, which bends gracefully to the side opposite to the wind, and presents quite a military appear- ance among the lake plants for a little fellow. 10. Sagittaria hastata. — The foliage of this plant has a very rich ap- pearance. The leaves, as the name indicates, are in the form of arrow or spear heads, but on a large scale, and are quite peculiar in their surface markings. Grows two feet high. 11. Sarracenia purpurea, or Flava. — The leaves of this plant are pitcher shaped and are usually half filled with water. The flower is a large nodding, something between the form of a side-saddle and a Dutch pillion ; an indescribable curiosity to the uninitiated. 12. Iris lacustris. — This has sword-shape and grass-like leaves, and large showy flowers, of all the rainbow colors — hence the name. 13. Pontedcria cordata. — This is a strong water plant, and grows in shallow water. Through its collection of heart-shaped leaves it throws up occasionally a stem or scape, terminated by a beautiful spike of vio- let-blue flowers. The heart-shaped leaves and pretty flowers do not stand far above the water's surface. 14. Acorus calamus, Calamus Flag. — Its creeping roots, which are pungent and aromatic, send up sword-like leaves and stems. A valu- able addition to lake plants on account of its usefulness as a domestic medicine, and a pleasant aromatic carminative. I am perfectly familiar with all the above plants and have trims planted them to my own fish lakes, and know well that they are useful. Anybody can make a pond, but it may not be durable in its planning or its structure or in the exit of its superfluous water. The earth should be well packed while it is in its naturally moist condition. If too dry BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 31 or wet it docs not pack well. The best packing is secured by building with a scraper and two mules. The mules pack as you go. When you have ascertained the elevation of water which you desire, make your banks about eighteen inches higher and finish up on a perfect level. Have the top of embakment broad enough for a walk — say from four to six feet wide. The sides should slant at about forty-five degrees. The Burmuda grass makes a firm sod. One of our oldest-inhabitant rains ran over my dams covered with Bermuda lately and never fazed them. Willow holds the dam against floods, but they become trees, and make the lake filthy and impure with rotting leaves. Plant no deciduous trees about lakes. Plant only such vegetables as fish eat for food, and these should be water-plants. Some use a square wooden or a round iron pipe or tube for the con- duit. Some place this conduit about the desired water level and others place it almost or quite down to the natural bed and turn the lower end up to the desired level of the lake surface. In either case the same objection obtains — the fish escape. If a wire gauze or network be placed over the tube it soon clogs up with moss, and the lake runs over, washes down, and fish escape at last. Another objection is that the least jar or. wrench of the tube makes a break in the dam, and the consequences are ruinous. Here is my plan : I make a solid earth dam as aforesaid, and at the side which suits the purpose best, and in the natural ground I dig a ditch large enough for escape of water, very slightly inclined, along the declivity of the hillsides, which shall discharge its water grad- ually all along its mossy or grassy edge until it wastes entirely away. ]So misfortune ever can happen to such an exuent of the waters and no fish, old or young, escape in the running season. Very little engineer- ing is required for this construction. Once in about two months moss and water rice, or other aquatic growth, should be cleaned out of the ditch. J used two little ditches on either side of the lake for this pur- pose and that of watering a strawberry patch and a summer garden in the valley between them. Some prepare for this by laying a pipe in the bottom of the lake and dam, and through this turn off the water when necessary, which is very seldom. This is all nice; but I still contend for the solid banks. The pipe is foreign matter and resists the settling of the earth and leaves just under it a loose stria and perhaps an open fissure where a break may commence. Also, when you turn off the water the fish, little and big, may escape, unless you get down to the mouth of the discharge pipe at the bottom and cover it with a wire screen. This soon gets filled with moss, mud, and trash, which requires another dive, &c. On the solid bank system use large hose on the syphon system. Muzzle the entrance with wire gauze. Get up on the dam midway; throw the hose into the lake and fill with water. Thus filled, and while it is in the water, stop the end intended for the exit and draw it over the bank and lay it in the ravine below. Unstop it and the discharge com- 32 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. mences. You can draw out your hose from the bottom of the lake from time to time, examine and cleanse the wire screen just below the surface of the water and let it down into the bottom again. This is so conve- nient. Sometimes the crawfish will give you an exit and save you the trou- ble of emptying your lake. The crawfish always begins to pierce the dam an inch below the surface of the water above. Then he descends in a devious way to the other side. He soon makes a spring. If that crawfish had to pass through a bed of loose, wet sand he would never make it. Guard his entrance, determined by the above natural instinct, with a layer of six or eight inches of sand and he will not turn off the lake any more. The sand falls in faster than he gets it out. You have beat him. Never plant a deciduous tree, nor let one stand inside of the lake in- closure. Every leaf will tumble before the wind, and rests not until it sinks to the bottom of the water. This will render the bottom of the lake filthy and the water impure. Evergreen trees will not do this. Their needle-shaped leaves behave themselves, and lie under their own trees to decay. Almost every lake which lies in a hollow or ravine has a considerable watershed above. The water collected by this wide table of land must be turned around the lake and emptied into the ravine be- low. In order to do this it is not absolutely necessary to make one large ditch on both sides of the lake. A large ditch begun above, by running across the ravine obliquely at the head of the lake and continued to an exit below, is sufficient to discharge the floods that come from hills or fields above. It is desirable to have one side of the lake accessible by an easy descent through a floral garden or undulating lawn. The water which runs into the lake on the other side may be turned away by a few furrows nicely engineered along the hillsides, so as to empty below the lake also. These striations can be worked into the general design for effect. RESULT OF PLANTING SHAD IN THE MUSKINGUM RIVER. By CHAS. W. SMItEY. Young shad were planted by the United States Fish Commission in the Muskingum river at Bayard, Ohio, in 1875, and at Zanesville in 187G. Mr. Ci. H. H. Moore, a messenger of the Fish Commission, reported May 2G, 1882, that while on a trip with fish to the Ohio river he was informed that fifty white shad had lately been taken at the State dam near New Philadelphia, Ohio, from the Tuscarawas river, which is a tributary of tliQ Muskingum. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 3 3 DECREASE OF FISH I1V SQUAIflSCOT RIVEK, NEW HAMPSHIRE. OX ACCOUNT OF REFUSE MATTER FRO Tl fiAS WORKS, By S. B. SWETT, M. ». "Paul may plant," &c, but there will be no increase, as long as the refuse matter from gas works is allowed to flow into the streams. In the year 1839 I went to Exeter, N. H., on Squainscot River, which is at the head of navigation, and had great sport in the next spring angling for white perch and striped bass, during one tide having, caught a bushel with rod and line ; the bait being young eels, of which I could scoop up a pint at a time in the holes in the rocks under the dam. After three or four years I found that there was great scarcity of bait as well as perch, &c, except dead perch, of which there were a a large quantity floating on the surface of the river at every tide. The alewives began to appear in less quantities each year, and eels in the winter became very scarce, so much so that from a barrel a day, which for years had been an ordinary day's work for a man, a bushel was rarely secured. In 1837-'38 bass were so plenty during the winter in the river that they brought only one to three cents a pound, on the ice, and several teams from Canada and the north loaded there with them for a return freight at that price rather than go ten miles farther to the sea for frozen codfish as they had intended. The first haul of alewives made in the river in a seine amounted to 36 hogsheads, in the year 1818 or 1819, which is as many or far more than are secured now in an entire summer. As the perch became more scarce, as well as the bait and all other fish, I began to look for a cause, and found that the Exeter Cot- ton Factory had a small gas-meter to make gas for the factory, and the whole of the refuse was allowed to flow into the river, so that even with any bait it was necessary to go some distance down stream below^ the factory and the oily, tarry mass floating on the surface of the water in that region, to take any fish, and then very few were caught and less each year. After a few years a company started some gas works on the river one-half mile below the factory to supply the town, and dug a drain down into the river to discharge all their refuse thereby, and since that it is difficult to obtain a mess ever so small of fresh fish in the river within four or five miles of those works. Shad, bass, and oc- casionally a salmon, and once in the year 1860 a sheepshead of 7 lbs., were taken in the traps or weirs set for alewives ; but even the ale- wife fishery is almost abandoned, and now not a dozeu small eels could be secured under the dam where I could have secured a million in a day from 1839 to 1850 or 1860. Boston, Mass., Jamaica Plain District, May 20, 1882. Bull. U. S. F. C. 82 3 Sept. 25, 1 882. 34 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. A BEVIEW OF THE SILUBOID FISHES FOUND ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF TROPICAL AMERICA, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES. By DAVID S. JORDAN and CHARLES II. GILBERT. Our knowledge of the marine Siluridoe of the west coast of Mexico and Central America has been due entirely to the labors of Gill, Giin- tlier, and Steindachner. Sixteen species apparently valid have been made known by these authors, to which three others are added in the present paper. Fourteen species were obtained by Mr. Gilbert at Ma- zatlan and Panama. All of these we have here redescribed, and the synonymy of the remaining species is given, together with a key by which they can be readily distinguished. Genus yELUBICHTHYS Baird & Girard. Ailurichthys Baird & Girard, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. vii, 26. ANALYSIS OF SPECIES OF ^ELURICHTHYS. *. Dorsal spine produced in a band-like filament which nearly or quite reaches the caudal fin ; maxillary barbel and pectoral filament reaching past the vent ; fon- tanelle distinct, broader than pupil; occipital process little conspicuous; anterior lobe of anal not reaching base of last rays; anal and usually ventrals above, with a conspicuous black blotch Pinnimaculatus, 1. aa. Dorsal spine not produced in a filament ; maxillary barbel reaching little if any more than half way to vent ; pectoral filament rarely reaching vent ; fontanelle inconspicuous, not so broad as pupil; occipital process prominent, especially in the males ; anterior lobe of anal high, in the adult reaching past last rays ; anal and ventrals without conspicuous black blotch Panamensis, 2. 1. -SJlurichthys pinnimaculatus Steindachner. Mluridhihys pinnimaculatus Steindachner, Ichthyol. Beitrage, iv, 15, 1875, taf. viii. (Altata ; Costa Rica ; Panama. ) Habitat. — Pacific coast of tropical America; Mazatlan; Altata; west toast of Costa Rica; Panama. Head 4^ (5| in total with caudal); width of head 5; depth 5i (7). D. 1, 7; A. 5, 23. Length (28347) 20 inches. Body elongate, compressed, the head broad and depressed, the anterior profile concave, rising rapidly to the front of the dorsal fin; head con- siderably broader than deep; interorbital space about 1£ in head; breadth of mouth about 2, length of snout 5. Eye moderate, anterior, 5 to 7 in head, placed close to the angle of the mouth, and not much above its level. Teeth all pointed; vomerine and palatine teeth, forming a continuous, rather narrow, cresceutiform band, the four different components indi- cated by slight constrictions, which are most distinct in the young ; vomerine hands somewhat broader than palatine bands, which are not prolonged backward. BULLETIN OK THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 35 Maxillary barbels compressed and band-shaped, their attenuated tips reaching more or less past the front of the anal fin. Mental barbels short, nearly 3 in head. Occipital process longer than broad, ascending- rather steeply back- ward, forming an angle with the rest of head, reaching nearly to the base of the dorsal, its surface covered with smooth skin. Foutanelle rather broad, extending from the snout to the base of the occipital process, its posterior part narrow, groove-like. Shields of head mostly smooth, the temporal region and occipital process often with small gran- ulations. Cheeks hard and prominent, the region between them and top of head somewhat concave. Dorsal spine ending in a long, band-like, obliquely striated and ar- ticulated filament, which extends more or less past base of caudal. Adipose fin short and high. Caudal widely forked, the upper lobe somewhat longest, about one-fifth longer than head. Anal somewhat emarginate, a little shorter than head, the anterior lobe falling con- siderably short of the base of the fin. Pectoral spine ending in a band- like filament like that of the dorsal spine; the filament varying in length, usually reaching nearly to last rays of anal. Humeral process covered by soft skin. Color dark brown, with bluish luster, silvery below; around pale spot in the center of fontanelle (traces of which are seen in all our species of Arius and ^Elurichthys) ; fins all pale; the anal with a large, roundish, black blotch in front; the upper edge of the ventrals usually, but not always, with a similar black blotch. This species is generally abundant along the Pacific coast of tropical America, although less common than JElurichtliys panamensis. It reaches a length of about 2 feet. Specimens were obtained at Mazat- lan and Panama. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 28192. Mazatlan. Gilbert, 28347. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29447. Panama. Gilbert. 29456. Panama. Gilbert. 31016. Panama. Gilbert, Panama. Eev. Mr. Eowell 2. JGlurichthys panamensis Gill. — Bagre. JElurichthys panamensis Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1863, 172 (young; Pan- ama); Giinther, Fishes Centr. Amer. 1869, 476 (copied from Gill); Stein- daclmer, Ichth. Beitriige, iv, 14, 1875, taf. ii (Magdalena Bay; Altata ; Panama). JElurickthys nuchalis Giinther, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. v, 179, 1865 ( $ , Panama); Giinther, Fishes Centr. Amer. 476, 1869, pi. 81, f. 2. Habitat, — Pacific coast of Central America; Magdalena Bay; Maz- atlan; Altata; Punta Arenas; Libertad; Panama. Head 3f (4f) ; width of head 4£ ; depth 4£. D. I, 7 ; A. 5, 21. Length (29174) 18 inches. 36 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Body little elongate ; the head rather broad, but not much depressed; the anterior profile scarcely concave, elevated in front of dorsal fin ; head somewhat broader than deep; interorbital space about If in head; breadth of mouth If; length of snout 34' ; eye rather large, 5 to 7 in head, placed close to the angle of the mouth, and not much about it ; vomerine and palatine teeth confluent into a band, the component parts indicated by conspicuous constrictions, more or less separated in the young; vomerine patches considerably larger than those on the palatines, the latter not prolonged backward. Maxillary barbels compressed, of varying length, longest in the young; in the adult rarely reaching beyond the middle of the pectoral spine. Mental barbels short, about 3 in head. Occipital process varying with the sex — in the male broad-ovate, somewahat constricted toward the base, nearly as broad as long, in the females more or less narrow, the form and degree of roughness extremely variable ; the plates rough- granular in old males, nearly smooth in the females, the occipital pro- cess being more or less coarsely striate; cheeks little prominent; fon- tanelle narrow, not very conspicuous, forming a groove which extends from the interorbital space to the base of the occipital process. Dorsal spine slender and rather short, not produced into a filament, the greatest height of the fin If in head, the anterior margin of the spine weakly and bluntly serrated ; adipose fin short and high ; caudal widely forked, the upper lobe little longest, slightly shorter than head ; anal high anteriorly, emarginate, the anterior lobe much highest in the adult, in which it extends considerably beyond the last rays of the fin. Pec- toral spine slender, ending in a band-like filament, which usually reaches about to the vent. Humeral process covered by soft skin. Color brownish above, with bluish and golden reflections, paler be- low, the white of the lower parts almost everywhere soiled with dark punctulations, which are especially numerous on the lower side of the head. Dorsal dusky ; other fins pale, more or less soiled by dark points ; the pectorals and veutrals more or less dusky above, but without dis- tinct dark blotches; barbel dark : a pale spot in the center of the fon- tanel le. This species is extremely common for the whole length of the Pacific coast of tropical America. It reaches a length of about 20 inches, and is known to the fishermen as "Bagre." It is rarely eaten. It was observed by Mr. Gilbert at Mazatlan, Punta Arenas, Libertad, and Panama. We are unable to find the type of this species in the Museum. SPECIMENS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 28181. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28294. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29174 (5 specimens). Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29310. Punta Arenas. Gilbert. 2960G. Mazatlan. Gilbert. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 37 Genus GALBIOHTHYS Cuv. & Val. Galeichiln/x C. & V. Hist. Nat. Poias, xv, -JO. 3. Galeichthys peruvianus Lutkeu. Galeichthya pervrianus Lutkeu, Yi.\ in head. Inter- orbital space flat and smooth, 2£ in head ; snout 3£; breadth of raouth 2. Mouth rather large, with thickish lips. Teeth villiform. Vomerine bauds moderate, confluent with each other and with the much larger ovate palatine bands; a slight constriction or furrow marking the divisions. Palatine bands each with a backward prolongation. Pre- maxillary band moderate. Barbels very short ; maxillary barbel scarcely or not reaching to base of pectoral; outer mental barbel scarcely past gill-opening below; inner shorter than snout. Ante-dorsal shield short, anteriorly truncate, not keeled, the length on the median line about half of one of its halves. Occipital process subtriangular, rather narrow, truncate behind, its margins straight, becoming concave forward, its width at base about equal to its length ; fontanelle an almost obsolete groove, its posterior end not reaching base of occipital process by about the diameter of the eye; the groove extend- ing forward to a point about midway between tip of snout and base of dorsal spine. Anterior to this point is an equilateral triangle, flat, cov- ered with smooth skin, the base of the triangle formed by the smooth, flattish, interorbital area. Shields of head rather coarsely granular- striate, the granulations beginning anteriorly about opposite posterior margin of eye. Opercle scarcely striate. Gill membranes forming a moderate fold across the isthmus. Dorsal spine high, about equal to pectoral spine, and but little shorter than head. No axillary pore. Humeral process triangular, granulated a little more than one-third length of pectoral spine. Adi- pose fin rather long. Upper lobe of caudal longest, a little shorter than head. Ventrals and anal moderate. Color brownish, not very dark; belly pale, thickly speckled with brown; fins more or less dusky ; maxillary barbels black; mental bar- bels pale. Two specimens were obtained at Panama. They disagree in several details from Steindachner's description, and it is possible that they be- long to a different species. The head in Steindachner's types is 3f to 3£ in length, and the occipital process is narrower and less widened an- teriorly. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29417. Panama. Gilbert. 29500. Panama. Gilbert. 9. Arius troscheli (Gill) Guntker. Sciades troschelii Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1863, 1?1 (Panama). Arius troscheUi Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. v, 1804, 150 (copied from Gill). Habitat. — Pacific coast of Central America; Panama. This species is apparently related to, A. planiceps, &c, but on account 44 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of the insufficiency of the description we are unable positively to assign its place in the genus. It may possibly be identical with A. planiceps. The type of the species cannot now be found in the Museum. 10. Arius platypogon Giinther. Arius platypogon Giinther, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. v, 147, 1864 (San Jos6 de Guatemala); Steindachuer, Ichthyol. Beitriige, iv, 17 (Magdalena Bay; west coast Central America ; Callao). Habitat. — Pacific coast of tropical America, from Lower California to Peru ; Magdalena Bay ; Mazatlan ; Libertad ; Punta Arenas ; San Jose de Guatemala ; Panama; Callao. Head3| (4f); width of head 4f; depth 5| (Gf); length (28286) lo£ inches. D. I, 7; A. 4, 14. Body rather elongate, the head not very broad nor much depressed, a little broader than deep. Eye rather large, 5 to in head. Interor- bital space slightly more than half head, a trifle less than width of mouth ; length of snout 3i in head. Teeth all pointed; bands of vomerine teeth small, roundish, their boundaries traceable by a slight depression in the young, in the adult fully confluent with each other and with the palatine bands ; palatine bands broad, ovate, several times as large as the patches on vomer, continued backwards over the pterygoid region; premaxillary band rather broad, 5 to C times as broad as long; maxillary barbel reaching past base of pectoral in the young, not to gill-opening in the adult ; its base a little broader and more compressed than usual in Arius; outer mental barbels 2 in head ; inner 2£. Ante-dorsal shield very short, lunate, subtruncate in front, its breadth more than three times its length on the median line. Occipital pro- cess long, triangular, with straight margins, its length about If times its width in front, its broad median line rather sharply heeled. In the young it is proportionally shorter, little longer than broad. At the beginning of this keel is the end of the long, narrow, groove-like fonta- nelle, which extends forward to a point just behind the eye, where it merges into the flattish and smooth anterior part of the head. Shields of head all finely granular, the granules rarely forming distinct lines. Dorsal spine long, 1£ to Ih in head, the soft rays projecting beyond the spine. Pectoral spine about as long as dorsal, sharply serrate be- hind, the anterior seme not very sharp; axillary pore small or absent. Ilumeral process nearly smooth, rather narrow and short, half length of pectoral spine. Adipose fin short and rather high, its base barely two-tifths length of base of anal. Caudal deeply forked, its upper lobe longest, and slightly falcate, about as long as head. Ventrala reaching anal in the females, shorter in the males. Vent nearer base of ventrals than anal. Color in life very pale olive brown, with bronze and blue reflections; BULLETIN OV THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 45 white below. Fins all pale, the tip of anal and edges of caudal somewhat dusky; female with fins rather darker, the upper edge of the pectorals and ventrals largely black; in the male these fins are pale, or somewhat brown above. Maxillary barbels blackish; lower pale. Generally abundant along the Pacific coast of tropical America. Specimens were observed by Mr. Gilbert at Mazatlan, Libertad, Punta Arenas, and Panama. It reaches a length of about 18 inches, and is seldom eaten. The males of this species, according to Dr. Steindachner, cany the eggs in their mouths until after hatching. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 28215. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28259. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 282G2. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28286. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29257. Punta Arenas. Gilbert. 11. Arius elatturus, sp. nov. (29408.) . Head 3f (4£); depth 5| (6|); width of head 4f; length (29408) 12£ inches. D. I, 6 ; A. 4, 14. Body low, not very elongate, the head rather short and very broad, much broader than deep, the snout depressed and very broadly rounded, almost truncate. Eye moderate, placed rather high, its diameter 7 in head. Jnterorbital space 2£ in head ; snout 3£ ; breadth of mouth If-. Mouth large, with thickish lips, the upper jaw considerably project- ing. Teeth on vomer and palatines villiform, but bluntly conical, less acute than in most oi the species. Vomerine patches oblong, small, separated by a narrow interspace from each other and from the palatine bands, which are roundish and comparatively small, with a backward prolongation. Teeth in the jaws in broad bands. Barbels rather short, the maxillary barbels reaching a little past base of pectorals, the outer mental barbels a little past gill-opening, the inner a little more than one- third head. H Ante-dorsal shieM not very short, crescent-shaped, with a distinct median keel, its length on the median line about one-third its breadth. Occipital process short, broadly triangular, with concave sides which spread out abruptly near the base, forming a sort of shoulder ; its length scarcely equal to its width at base. Median keel well developed. Fontanelle broad and shallow, abruptly narrowed posteriorly at a point a little nearer base of dorsal than tip of snout, but extending as a groove to a point distant less than a diameter of the eye from the base of the occipital process, this groove indistinct in the smaller specimen. Greatest width of fontanelle scarcely more than half eye. Shields of head granular-striate, the. roughness less coarse than in A. kessleri. Interorbital space with two prominent ridges and numerous stria?, none 46 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of them granular, the granulations chiefly confined to the region behind widest part of fontanelle. Opercle striate. Gill -membranes forming a moderate fold across isthmus. Dorsal spine low, shorter than pectoral spine, which is 1| in head, the anterior edges of both bluntly serrate. Humeral process broadly tri- angular, granulated, not two-fifths length of pectoral spine, much smaller than in A. inscnlptus. No axillary pore. Adipose fin long and low, without free posterior margin. Lower fins of moderate length; vent much nearer ventrals than anal. Caudal short, the upper lobe longest, If in head (a little more than half head inthe smaller specimens). Color dusky above, the lower parts soiled with dark points. Fins all more or less dusky with dark points. Maxillary barbels dusky, others pale. One male specimen was obtained at Panama. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29408. Panama. Gilbert, 30995. Panama. Powell. 12. Arius osculus sp. nov. (29476.) Head 3£ (43); depth 6| (7§); width of head 4|; length (29476) 11 inches. D. I, 7; A. 4, 14. Body moderately elongate, the head short, rather narrow, tapering forwards, considerably broader than deep. Eye small, 7 J in head, placed well above the mouth. Interorbital space 1-^ in head; snout 3; breadth of mouth 2f . Mouth very small for the genus, with thick lips. Teeth on vomer and palatines villiform, but rather coarse and bluntish. Vomerine patches small, rather longer than broad, separated on the median line, and each also separated by a narrow groove from the large and roundish palatine bands, which have a distinct backward prolongation. Premax- illary band of teeth very broad, barely 3 times as long as wide. Barbels short, the maxillary barbels reaching slightly beyond base of pectorals, the outer mental barbels scarcely past gill-openiufFbelow; inner mental barbels about as long as snout. Ante-dorsal shield short, crescent-shaped, granulated, but without median keel, its length about one-fourth its breadth. Occipital process narrow, its edges almost parallel until abruptly widened at base; the narrow part considerably longer than broad, with curved edges. A well-developed median keel. Fontanelle broad and shallow, abruptly contracted at a point midway between tip of snout and end of occipital process, thence continued backward as a narrow groove to a point less than an eye's diameter in front of the base of the occipital process. Greatest width of fontanelle about three-fifths eye. Shields cf top of head all coarsely and rather sparsely granular, and anteriorly striate. Interorbital space nearly plane, with a few low, smooth ridges. Opercle BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. -1 7 scarcely rugose. Gill-membranes forming a narrow fold across isthmus posteriorly. Dorsal spine very high, 1| iu head, a little longer than pectoral spine. Humeral process granular, not quite two-fifths length of pectoral spine. ]STo axillary pore. Adipose fin adnate posteriorly. Caudal long, its upper lobe longest, somewhat falcate, l^V m head. Anal rather high. Color brown, with bluish reflections; lower parts dusky, with dark punctulations. Fins all blackish; maxillary and outer mental barbels dusky. A single male specimen was obtained at Panama. SPECIMEN IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29T76. Panama. Gilbert. 13. Arius assimiiis Giinther. Arius assimiiis Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. v, 146, 1864 (Lake Yzabal); Giinther, Fish. Centr. Arner. 1869, 474 ; Steindachner, Fisch-Fauna des Casca etc. 1*80, 39 (no description ; Magdalena Eiver, in brackish water). ? Arius seemani Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mns. v, 147, 1864 (" Central America " : specimen with the fontanelle extending to base of occipital process). ? Arius cwrulescens Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. v, 149, 1864 (Huamacbal). Arius guatemaknsis Steind. Icbtb. Beitr. iv, 18, 1875 (Magdalena Bay ; Altata Panama). Habitat.-- Both coasts of tropical America; Magdalena Bay; Mazat- lan; Altata; Panama; Lake Yzabal (in Guatamala, tributary to Bay of Honduras); Magdalena Kiver (tributary to Caribbean Sea). Head 3± (4f in total); width of head 5£; depth 5 (6f); length (28299) 11 inches. D. I, 7; A. 4, 14. In the largest specimen (29213) the head is 4 in length. Body comparatively elongate, the head depressed but not very broad, somewhat broader than high ; eye rather large, 5 to G in length of head; width of interorbital space 2^ in head; breadth of mouth 1|; length of snout 3£. Teeth all villiform ; bauds of vomerine teeth separated by a rather wide interval, each small, roundish, confluent with the neighboring palatine band, the junction marked by a slight constriction ; palatine bands ovate, broad behind, varying considerably in size and somewhat in form, the width ranging from one-third diameter of eye to two-thirds, being generally largest in adults ; band of palatine teeth without back- ward prolongation ; band of premaxillary teeth rather broad and short, its length about o times its breadth. Maxillary barbel reaching a little past base of pectoral in the young, scarcely to gill-opening in the adult ; outer mental barbels 2 in head, inner .3. Ante-dorsal shield very short, narrowly crescent-shaped, its length on the median line not more than half that of one of its sides. Occipital process subtriangular, not quite as long as broad at base, with a strong median keel, its edges slightly curved. A short distance in front of the beginning of the keel is the end of the very narrow groove-like 48 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. fontanelle, which is somewhat widened anteriorly, finally merging into the broad, flat, smooth interorbital area, the boundaries of which are not well defined ; shields of head unusually smooth, all finely and very sparsely granular, the granules not forming distinct lines. Gill-membranes forming a rather broad fold across isthmus. Dorsal spine long, usually, but not always, shorter than the pectoral spine, about If in head ; axillary pore absent. Humeral process rather broadly triangular, not much produced backward, less than half length of pectoral spine, its surface not granular, covered by skin. Adipose fin half length of anal, its posterior margin little free. Upper lobe of caudal longest and somewhat falcate, about as long as head. Ventral s about reaching anal in the females, shorter in the males. Vent much nearer base of ventrals than anal. Color olire green, with bluish luster, white below; upper fins dusky olivaceous; caudal yellowish dusky at tip ; anal yellowish with a median dusky shade ; ventrals yellowish, the basal half of the upper side ab- ruptly black ; pectorals similarly colored, the black area rather smaller; maxillary barbel blackish ; other barbels pale. Very common at Mazatlan, where it is the most abundant species of the genus. It reaches a length of less than 18 inches. It was not observed at Panama by Mr. Gilbert. According to Giinther and Steindachner this species occurs on both sides of the isthmus. It is not improbable that Arius seemani and ccerulescens Gthr. are identical with it. Our specimens answer the description of assimilis better than that of either of the others. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 231G1. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28189. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28210. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28213 (2). Mazatlan. Gilbert, 28221. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28232. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28276. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28301. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 14. A.rius caerulescens Giinther. Arius ecerulescens Giinther, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. v, 149, 1864 (Rio Htiamnclial ; west coast of Guatemala). Habitat. — Pacific coast of Central America; Eio Huamuchal. This species is unknown to us. It is certainly very close to Arius assim- ilis, if not identical with it. 15. Arius guatemalensis Giinther. Arius (/it at- main/six Giinther, Cat. Fibh. Brit. Mus. v, l c 64, 145 (Guatemala; Chiapam); Giinther, Fish. Centr. Auier. 1869, 393 (name only): not Arius guatemalensis Steind. Habitat. — Pacific coast of tropical America ; Mazatlan ; Chiapam. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 49 Head 3| (4|) ; width of head 5 (('>'), depth G£ (7). Length (28140) 12£ inches. D. I, G ; P. I, 10; A. 3, 15. Body slender, its width anteriorly greater than its depth ; caudal pe- dnncle compressed, short; distanee from end of anal to base of median caudal rays about one-half length of head. Head depressed, not very broad; its depth at posterior margin of branehiostegal membranes less than three-fifths its width ; interorbital region flat, smooth, the smooth area forming a broad equilateral triangle, its base at the interorbital space, the apex at a point four-ninths the distance from snout to dorsal, the triangle forming the termination of the almost obsolete fontanelle; ' top of head, occipital process, and ante-dorsal shield finely granular, some of the anterior granulations only arranged in lines, none of them in radiating stride. Occipital process broadly trapezoidal, its width slightly greater than the length of its side, with a slight or obsolete median carina ; its posterior margin truncated ; its sides slightly convex posteriorly, concave toward the front; ante-dorsal shield small, narrow, crescent-shaped, its median length about half the length of its side. Eye small, G in head; interorbital width 2f- in head; snout 4 in head; breadth of mouth 2. Maxillary barbel very slender, reaching base of pectoral spine; outer mental barbel to well beyond margin of branehi- ostegal membranes, its length about half head ; inner mental barbel 3 in head. Teeth all villiform ; width of premaxillary band about one-sixth its length. Vomerine and palatine bands of teeth, fully confluent on each side, forming together a crescent-shaped patch, narrowly divided on the median line of the vomer; form of vomerine band similar to that of the palatine band. Palatine band of teeth without backward prolongation. Opercle with radiating ridges ; humeral process granular, narrow, pro- duced backward, not quite half-length of pectoral spines; no axillary pore. Gill-membranes forming a narrow fold across isthmus. Dorsal short, its base about equal to that of adipose dorsal ; dorsal spine robust, but little shorter than pectoral spine, about three-fifths length of head ; its anterior seme small and tubercle-like; its posterior edge, as well as that of pectoral, retrorsely serrate; soft rays of dorsal rays extending much beyond the spine, the longest about three-fomihs length of head. Adipose dorsal about one-half as high as long, its pos- terior margin largely free. Caudal very widely forked, the upper lobe falcate, nearly one-third longer than the lower, as long as head. Anal short and low. Distance from vent to base of ventral s slightly more than one-half its distance from origin of anal. Pectoral spine very strong, much stronger than dorsal spine, its anterior margin with sen ;e towards the tip, becoming small tubercles towards base; inner edge with strong retrorse serrre, the soft rays longer than spines, reaching three-fourths distance to base of ventrals. Color very dark bluish or greenish above ; sides with bronze lustre : belly silvery. Mental barbels white, with black edge; maxillary bar Bull. U. S. F. C, 82 4 Oct. 6, 1 8 82. 50 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. bel blackish; fins all blackish, the caudal nearly uniform ; the paired fins darkest on the inner side. Sides with vertical series of mucous pores, conspicuous in life. This species is not uncommon at Mazatlan, where several specimens were obtained by Mr. Gilbert. Four specimens from Colima are also in the National Museum. It was not observed at Panama. The original description of this species is brief and not entirely cor- rect. That it was intended to refer to the species here described we have ascertained by the examination of Dr. Gunther's original types in the British Museum. SPECIMENS LN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 28140. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29284. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28289. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 28290. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 29G47. Mazatlan. Gilbert. 8144 (4). Colima. John Xantus. 16. Arius dowi (Gill) Giinther. Lcptariua doivii Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Pliila. 1863, 170 (Panama ; "generic" diagnoses and measurements). Arius dovii Giinther, Fish. Centr. Amer. 1869, 476 (copied from Gill). Habitat. — Pacific coast of Central America; Panama. Head 4 (4f) ; depth G£ (7£) ; width of head 5£; length (29529) 10 inches. D. I, 8 ; A. 4, 12. Body elongate, narrow and slender, the caudal peduncle If in head. Head low and narrow, tapering anteriorly, the snout sub-truncate. Eye small, 7 in head, placed rather high ; interorbital space little arched, with ridges and depressions, 24 in head; snout 3| in head; breadth of mouth 2^ in head. Mouth moderate, with thinnish lips; teeth villiform, blnntish; vom- erine teeth forming two smallish, rounded patches, separated by a mod- erate interspace ; each patch coniluent with the neighboring palatine patch, which is rounded and rather large; the suture marked by a con- striction. Palatine bands without backward prolongation. Premaxil- lary band of teeth broad. Barbels very long; maxillary barbel extending well beyond tip of pectoral fin ; outer mental barbel reaching well past front of pectoral ; inner 2f in head. Ante-dorsal shield comparatively large, not distinctly crescent-shaped, its divisions produced backward, their length about twice the length of the shield on the median line; anterior margin with two cmarginations, the point fitting into an emargination of the occipital process ; ante- dorsal shield without keel. Occipital process very broad and short, its edges nearly straight, its breadth at base considerably greater than its length; its median line with a rather low keel. Foutanelle broad and BULLETIN OP THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 51 very short, ending obtusely at a point not far behind eye, the distance from this point to tip of snout If in its distance from base of dorsal. Each side of fontanelle with a conspicuous smooth ridge, the two ridges converging anteriorly ; shields of head rather finely granulated, few of the granulations forming lines, none of them extending farther forward than posterior margin of eye. Opercle striate. Gill-membranes meeting below in a sharp angle, forming a rather broad fold across isthmus. Dorsal spine very short, its length a trifle less than pectoral spine, 2\ in head. Axillary pore obsolete. Humeral process granulated, rather narrowly triangular, a little less than half length of pectoral spine, which extends barely two-fifths the distance to the ventral fins ; adipose fin long and low, very nearly or quite coterminous with the anal; caudal narrow, rather short, the upper lobe longest, If in head ; anal rather low and short ; ventrals short, the vent not far behind them. Color dusky above, pale below, the fins all more or less dusky; max- illary barbels dusky, others pale. A single young male specimen was obtained at Panama. This is one of the more aberrant species of the genus. It is, however, not distantly related to A. guatemalensis, and there is certainly no suffi- cient ground for its separation from " Hexanematichthys" as a distinct genus, " Leptarius" Gill. The original type of this species cannot be found. SPECEMEN IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29528. Panama. Gilbert. 17. Ariua dasycephalus Giinther. Arim dasycephalus Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. v, 1864, 157 (Oahu, Sandwich Islands) ; Steindachner, Ichth. Beitr. iv, 1875, 26 (Panama ; no description). EaMtat. — Tropical parts of the Eastern Pacific; *Sandwich Islands; Panama. Head 4 J (5f) ; depth 6 (7±) ; width of head 5£; length (29400) 11 inches. D.I, 7 j A. 4, 17. Body elongate, compressed behind, the head small, narrow and mod- erately depressed anteriorly, the snout not very blunt. Eye rather large, placed somewhat above level of angle of mouth, its length 5 in head ; width of interorbital space 2^ in head; breadth of mouth 2£; length of snout 3|. Teeth villiform, those of vomer and palatines rather coarse, bluntly * Three species (Arius dasycephalus, Ch&todon humeralis, and Isesihes brevipinnis), be- longing to the fanna the Pacific Coast of Central America, are recorded by Dr. Giin- ther from the Sandwich Islands. In these cases we strongly snspect that there has been a confusion of localities among the specimens in the British Museum, and that all came from America. 52 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. conic ; bands of vomerine teeth separated by a rather broad area, each confluent with the neighboring palatine band, the two forming a small oblong patch much smaller than the eye, the division between the pala- tine and vomer scarcely appreciable. p Palatine bands without backward prolongation. Bands of teeth in jaws short and broad. Maxillary bar- bel reaching about to middle of pectoral spine ; outer mental barbel to base of pectoral ; inner slightly more than half head. Ante-dorsal shield short, crescent-shaped, a little more than three times as broad as long on the median line. Occipital process sub-tri- angular, its sides straight, slightly longer than broad, its median line rather sharply keeled. Close in front of its base begins the deep fonta- nelle, which is narrow and groove-like posteriorly, becoming rather abruptly broader above the opercle, then gradually narrowed anteriorly. Ridges bounding fontanelle prominent anteriorly to a point just be- hind vertical from nostrils, coarsely granular for their whole length, the granules mostly arranged in one series. Between these ridges and the eye on each side is another ridge extending obliquely backwards and inwards from above front of eye, likewise very coarsely granular, the granules mostly in two series. Shields of head all rough granular, the granules forming irregular lines. Gill-membranes forming a narrow fold across isthmus. Dorsal spine moderate, about equal to pectoral spine, 1^ in head. Axillary pore present, small. Humeral process broad, scarcely granu- lar, about two-fifths pectoral spine. Adipose fin rather long and low. Caudal long, the upper lobe longest, somewhat longer than head. Anal long and high, its outline emarginate, its longest rays a little more than half head. Yentrals long, the vent nearer their base than that of anal. Color dusky, the entire ventral surface soiled with dark points ', fins all largely blackish ; barbels black. Two specimens were obtained at Panama. This species may be known at once by the four granulated ridges, which extend the length of the interorbital space. SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29400. Panama. Gilbert. 29478. Panama. Gilbert. 18. Arius ftirthii Steindachner. A rius fiirthii Steindachner, Ichth. Beitrage, iv, 29, 1875 (Panama). Habitat. — Pacific coast of Central America; Panama. This species is known to us only through the description of Stein- dachner. 19. Arius melanopus Giinther. Arius melanopus Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mns. 18G4, v, 172 (Kio Mot ago a; cast coast of Guatemala) ; Steindachner, Ichth. Beitr. iv, 1875, 21) (Panama). Habitat. — Both (?) coasts of Central America ; liio Motagua ; Panama. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 53 This species is known to us only from the descriptions of Giinther and Steindachner. 20. Alius hypophthalmus Steindachner. Ariua hypophthalmus Steindachner Iclith. Beitr. iv, 31, 1875, taf. x, (Panama). Habitat. — Pacific coast of Central America; Panama. Head 3f (4); depth 4§- (5|); width of head 5£j length (29508) 14 inches. D. I, 7; A. 2, 20. Body elongate, compressed, the hack rather abruptly elevated at front of base of dorsal. Head rather long, narrow, much depressed an- teriorly, as high at occiput as broad. Snout rather narrow and thin, rounded anteriorly; the mouth small, the upper jaw much projecting. Eye small, placed low, with no vertical range, its middle below the level of angle of mouth, 7 in head; interorbital space 2-J- in head; breadth of mouth 2^ ; length of snout 3. Palatine teeth small, bluntly conic, almost granular; vomerine bands of teeth separated by a very wide interval about equal to eye; on each side, fully confluent with and scarcely distinguishable from the palatine band, which forms a large oblong patch rather broadest anteriorly. Palatine band without backward prolongations. Both jaws very thin, depressed, their bands of teeth narrow. Barbels very long and slender, the maxillary barbel extending nearly to middle of pectoral spine; outer mental barbels nearly as long as maxillary barbel, considerably longer than head, extending well past base of pectoral; inner mental barbels almost reaching base of pectoral. Ante-dorsal shield very short, narrowly crescent-shaped, its length on the median line scarcely more than one-fifth its width. Occipital process subtriangular, somewhat emarginate behind, in the adult speci- men longer than broad, its sides concave. Its sides slope steeply from the median line, which forms an angle rather than a keel. A short distance in front of the base of the occipital process is the pointed ter- mination of the long and rather narrow fontanelle, which is widest above the cheeks, tapering slowly forward and more rax>idly backward. On each side of the fontanelle anteriorly is a ridge composed of a rather feeble bone, striate, but not granular, and like the rest of the interorb- ital space, covered with thick skin. An oblique ridge extends upwards and backwards between the above-mentioned ridge and the eye, the in- terorbital region being more uneven and covered by thinner skin than usual in this genus. Shields of head all rugose, moderately rough, but scarcely granular, the depressions being rather of the nature of reticu- lating furrows ; young specimen with the plates more granular. Oper- cle with distinct radiating stride. Gill-membranes forming a very narrow fold across the isthmus. Dorsal spine long, 1£ in head, considerably longer than the pectoral spine. Axillary pore well developed. Humeral process very short, nearly smooth, less than one-fourth length of pectoral spine. Adipose fin rather high, its posterior margin largely free. Upper lobe of caudal short, 54 BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. scarcely longest, li in head. Anal comparatively long and high, its longest rays 2J in head, its margin somewhat concave. Ventrals moderate. Vent much nearer base of ventrals than anal. Color rather dull grayish brown, with bluish and purple reflections above, paler below ; fins all pale, or the lower more or less dusky. Maxillary and outer mental barbels blackish. This species is not very abundant at Panama, where two specimens were obtained. Among the species here noticed, this is decidedly the most aberrant. It may be considered as the type of a distinct subgenus, characterized chiefly by the position of the eyes. This group may be known as Catho- rojps. (A'aOopaa>-to look down; wi/'-eye.) SPECIMENS IN UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. 29436. Panama. Gilbert. 29508. Panama. Gilbert. Indiana University, May 27, 1882. A POOR SEASON FOB SSAD HATCHING IN NORTH CAROLINA. By S. G. WORTH. (Letter to Col. M. McDonald.) I have been in Ealeigh a week getting the affairs of my shad work fixed up. We had poor luck at Avoca; hatched only 2,2G0,000 fish. We attended every haul at Dr. Capehart's fisheries, and for more than a week attended three fisheries on the Eoanoke. I also attended three other fisheries near Plymouth (on the Eoanoke) for three days, and many of the dip-nets at Weldon. It would appear that the cause was due (1) to the cold and variable weather, and (2) to the poor charac- ter of fishing done at Sutton Beach, our chief source of supply. The catch in Albemarle Sound, according to Dr. Capehart, is smaller than usual; but I am disinclined to think so. He had an inferior season, running about 7,000 shad below last year. The catch on the Eoanoke was better than for years; and I learn that the same increaso was apparent on the jSTeuse and Tar. The Cape Fear was below last year very considerably. Your jars worked beautifully, and the addi- tions to the glass tubes were found unnecessary. Departiment or Agriculture, Ealeigh, JS T . C, May 20, 18S2. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 55 A BETIEW OF TIIE SPECIES OV NTOrEPHOniA FOUND OIV THE ATLANTIC COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. By JOSEPH SWAIN. Our knowledge of the Anchovies of the Atlantic coast of the United States has been confused and imperfect. Among them I recognize three species, the synonymy and diagnostic characters of which I give in the present paper. I am indebted to Professor Jordan for the use of his collections and library, and for valuable suggestions. ANALYSIS OF SPECIES. a. Body elongate, little compressed, the depth less than one-fifth the length; snout, pointed ; insertion of dorsal about midway between root of caudal and end of snout; caudal peduncle long and slender; depth 6 in length; ail very lateral band broad, diffuse, broader than eye. D. 14; A. 19 Perfasciatus, 1. aa. Body compressed, little elongate; the depth more than one- fifth the length; inser- tion of dorsal nearer root of caudal than tip of snout. b. Anal basis moderate, its rays about 20; snout pointed, projecting much beyond lower jaw; depth 4J in length; silvery lateral band very sharply defined, almost as broad as eye Browni, 2. bb. Anal basis elongate, its rays about 2G ; snout rather blunt, not projecting mnch beyond lower jaw; depth about four in length; silvery lateral baud diffuse, naiTow, not much broader than pupil Mitchilli, 3. 1. Stolephorus perfasciatus (Poey) Jor. &. Gilb. ? Engraulis argyrophanus C. & V. Hist. Nat. Poiss. xsi, 49, 1848 (equatorial Atlantic). Engraulis perfasciatus Poey, Memorias Cuba, ii, 313, 1860 (Havana); Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub. 421, 1808 (Havana) ; Giinther, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mas. vii, 391, 1868 (San Domingo ; Cuba). Stolepliorus perfasciatus J. &, G. Syn. Fishes North America, 273, 1682 (Wood's Holl, Mass.). Eabitat. — Cape Cod to Cuba ; Wood's Holl, Massachusetts; Havana; San Domingo. Head 3| (4£ in total); depth 6 (6f). D. 14; A. 19. Body elongate, less compressed than in S. hroicni; belly slightly com- pressed, not serrated. Depth of head If in its length. Snout pointed, projecting beyond lower jaw, about 5 in head, its profile below not con- cave. Eye 4 in head. Mouth somewhat oblique; maxillary truncate, not reaching quite to base of mandible. Teeth on mandible and maxillary weaker than in 8. broicni. Opercle short, oblique. Gill-rakers as long as snout. Insertion of dorsal about midway between root of caudal and end of snout. Caudal peduncle long and slender. Caudal fin forked. Anal rather short, without basal sheath, its base 5J in length of fish. Pectoral short, 2\ in head. Yentrals 3 in head. 56 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Silvery lateral band broad, one-half wider than eye, bordered above by a dusky stripe. Tip of snout and upper part of head rather dusky, color otherwise as in 8. broicni. Described from a single specimen from Wood's Holl, Mass. Engraulis argyrophanus, taken by Kuhl and Van Hasselt in the equa- torial Atlantic, during their passage from Europe to Batavia, as de- scribed by C. & V., does not materially differ from Engraulis perfasciatus Poey, but, owing to the inadequate description and the locality, I have queried their identity. 2. Stolephorus browni (Gmel.) J. & G. " Piquitinga, Marcgr. Pise. Bras. 159." " Men'ulia, Brown, Jam. 441, tab. 45, fig. 3." "Argentina, sp., Gronov, Zoophyl. 11*2, No. 350." Atherina broicni Gruel. Syst. Nat. 1397, 1788 (Atlantic Ocean ; Pacific. After Brown). Engraulis browni C. & V. Hist. Nat. Poiss. xxi, 41, 1848 (New York; Havana; Jamaica; Martinique; Vera Cruz; Brazil); Poey, Memoriae Cuba, ii, 312, 1860 (Havana) ; Poey, Sys. Pise. Cub. 419, 1868 (Havana) ; Giintber, Cat. Fishes Brit. Mus. vii, 389, 1868 (Atlantic; Pacific Coast of Central America"); Jor. & Gilb. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1878 (Beau- fort, N. C). Stolephorus browni J. & G. Syn. Fisbes Nortb America, 273, 1882 (Cape Cod to Brazil). Clupea vittata Mitcbill, Trans. Lit. & Pbil. Soc. N. Y. i, 456, 1815 (New York); Dekay, New York Fauna, 254, 1842 (copied from Mitchill) ; Storer, Syn. Fisbes Nortb America, 457, 1845 (New York). Engraulis vittatus Baird, Ninth Smitbsonian Eept. 1854, 347 (Beaseley's Point, New Jersey). Engraulis piquitinga "Spix, Pise. Bras. tab. 23, fig. 1 (not good)." Engraulis tricolor Agass. Pise. Bras. 51, 1850; Poey, Memorias Cuba, ii, 314, 1860 (Havana). Argentina menidia "Gronov, Syst. ed. Gray, 141." Engraulis mitchilli Giintber, Cat. Fisbes Brit. Mus. vii, 391, 1868 (Atlantic coast of America; Cayenne. Description confused with that of .E. mitchilli C. & V.), Engraulis hiulcus Goode & Beau, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. ii, 34:!, 1879 (Clear Water Harbor, Fla. ). Stohphorus hiulcus J. & G. Syn. Fisbes Nortb America, 237, 1882. Habitat. — New York to Brazil; Hudson Biver; New York Harbor; Beaseley's Point, New Jersey; Beaufort, North Carolina; Clear Water Harbor, Florida ; Havana; Jamaica; Martinique; Vera Cruz; Cayenne; Brazil. Head 3| (4.\); depth 4| (5£). D. 15; A. 20. Body oblong, compressed ; the belly compressed, somewhat serrated. Head moderate. Snout pointed, projecting much beyond lower jaw, its length less than diameter of eye, about 5 in head, its profile below slightly concave. Eye about 3£ in head. Mouth oblique; maxillary pointed, reaching almost to gill-openings. Teeth evident on maxillary and mandible. Cheeks triangular, scarcely larger than eye. Opercle *Tbis : 1 1 1 < 1 other references to Stolephorus browni from the Pacific Coast apparently refer to tbe related but distinct species, Stolephorus isehanus J.&, G. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 57 rather short, oblique. Length of gill-rakers equals two-thirds the diam- eter of eye. Insertion of dorsal about midway between root of caudal fin and anterior border of eye. Caudal peduncle robust. Caudal fin deeply forked. Anal moderate, with basal sheath, the length of its base 4f in head. Pectorals nearly 2 in head. Ventrals short, 3 ; V in head. Color in spirits slightly olivaceous ; side with a sharply defined silvery band, about as wide as eye, more distinct than in our other species. Snout yellowish ; top of head dusky; sides of head lustrous silvery; caudal light, with many dark points ; dorsal little dotted; anal and pec- toral scarcely specked. Described from numerous specimens from Beaufort, N. 0., and a specimen from the coast of Brazil. The specimens obtained by Professor Baird at Beesley's Point, New Jersey, belong to this species. Giinther's description of Engraulis mitchilli does not conform to 8. broicni in depth of body and in the number of anal rays; these char- acters probably indicate a confusion with E. mitcMlli C. & Y. Engraulis hiulcus Goode and Bean differs from S. broicni in a body less deep and in having two more rays in the anal — differences which scarcely sustain the validity of the species. 3. Stolephorus mitchilli (C. & V.) J. & G. Engraulis mitchilli C. & V. Hist. Nat. Poiss. xxi, 50, 1848 (New York ; Lake Pontchartrain ); Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub. pp. 421 and 422, 1868 (Havana). Stolephorus mitcMlli J. & G. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1882. Engraulis viltata Storer, Fishes of Mass. 341, 1867, pi. xxvii, fig. 3. (Descrip- tion incomplete and erroneous; the figure good, and evidently referring to S. mitchilli. Provincetown, Mass.) Engraulis duodicim Cope, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. 1866 (Beeseley's Point, N. J. Description erroneous* if intended for this species). Habitat. — Cape Cod to Texas and Cuba; Provincetown; Wood's Holl; Tensacola; Lake Pontchartrain; Galveston; Havana. For detailed description of S. mitchilli, see J. & G., Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1882. Indiana University, June 11, 1882. ON A COULECTION OF FISHES FROM THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEV. m By O. P. HAY. The fishes described in the following paper were collected mostly by the author during the summer of 1881. The first point visited was Memphis, Tenn. My collections there were made during the latter part of June, on the Arkansas side of the river. The seining was done there, as I was obliged for the most part to do it elsewhere, in the shallow *This species differs from E. broicni in having the dorsal fin entirely anterior to tlie anterior ray of the long and deeply concave anal and in the serration of its belly. (Cope.) 58 BULLETIN" OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ponds along the river, which had been filled during the period of high water. From Memphis I proceeded to Vicksburg, Miss., where I spent several days during the early part of July. The collecting was done on both the Mississippi and the Louisiana sides of the river. My next work was done along the Big Black River, near Edwards, where the railroad leading to Jackson crosses this stream. At Jackson, Miss., a very thorough search was made of Pearl Eiver and the ponds and small streams of the vicinity. A portion of the collection was made at this point about the middle of July, and another portion about the middle of August. In the latter month a day was spent along the Big Black at Yaughan's Station, along the !New Orleans and Chicago Railroad, in Yazoo County. Another day was devoted to seining in the Yalabusha River, at Grenada, in Yalabusha County ; and this ended my work in that region for the season. I have iucluded also a few species that were sent to me from Enter- prise, Miss., on the Cbickasawha River. One of them, Labidesthes sic- culuSj had not previously been obtained from that part of the State, while the other specimens enable me to give more complete descriptions than have yet been given of the species to which they belong. In this paper I enumerate Gl species, 5 of which I describe as new to, science. One new genus is established, belonging to the Cyprinidaj. ETHEOSTOMATHXE. 1. Ammocrypta vivax, sp. nov. In form and general appearance closely resembling A. pcUucirfa (Bd.) Jor. Body elongated and terete. Depth in the length, 7 times or more. Head contained in the length 4 times. Snout gradually decurved ; inter- maxillaries protractile. Mouth moderate, horizontal, the maxillaries reaching back to a vertical from the anterior border of the orbit. Teeth on the vomer, intermaxillaries, and mandibles rather weak. Eye equal to the snout, and contained in the length of the head 3 J times; interor- bital space narrow. Cheeks densely covered with small scales. Oper- clcs overlaid with a few rather large scales. Body completely covered with small, usually strongly ctenoid scales, except the regions immediately in front of and behind the bases of the paired fins. There are C5 rows of scales running across the distinct lateral line. Of the horizontal rows of scales, G lie above the lateral lino and 10 below it. The rays of the fins are as follows: D XI, 10 ; A 1, 9. The spinous and soft dorsals are separated by a space equal to one-half the length of the head. The two portions of this fin are about equal in height, the longest ray of each being contained twice in the length of the head. The base of the spinous dorsal is four-fifths the length of the head ; that of the soft dorsal about one-half the same unit. The anal is short and high, its base less than one-half the head, while the longest ray is equal to three- fourths the head. As to position, the spinous dorsal begins at a point BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. 59 three-eighths of the distance from the snout to the base of the caudal, the soft dorsal two-thirds of this distance, and the anal immediately un- der the first ray of the soft dorsal. The single spine of the anal is soft and weak. The pectorals and the ventrals extend backward to about the same point, a little more than half-way from the base of the pectorals to the commencement of the anal. The caudal peduncle forms about one- fourth of the length exclusive of the caudal fin. In color this fish, while living, resembles the other species of this genus, being indeed almost as pellucid as A. beanii ; and at first it was supposed to be that species. The sides are ornamented with about 10 dusky blotches, most distinct posteriorly. Along the back there are about 14 similar blotches. The occiput is sprinkled with black specks, and a few of these are scattered over the snout. The belly, chest, and lower parts of the head are colorless. The fins appear to be marked in no way except with a few black dots. Only a single specimen of this species was secured. Its length to the base of the caudal is 1§ inches, taken from the Pearl River at Jackson, Miss. 2. Ammocrypta beanii Jor. — Bean's Darter. Ammocrypta gelida, Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, in, 1880, 490. One specimen of this species was taken, along with the preceding, from the Pearl Eiver at Jackson. It is but an inch and one-eighth long, and resembles those taken in Eastern Mississippi, and described, as cited above, under the name of A. gelida. I have no doubt now, however, that they ought to have been included under Professor Jordan's species. 3. loa vigil, sp. nov. The following description is drawn from a single specimen, which has a length of 1 inch to the base of the caudal : Body slender, head long, caudal peduncle compressed and compara- tively deep. The fish, therefore, appears to have nearly the same depth everywhere. Top of the head sloping gradually from the occiput to the snout. Length of the head in that of the body, 3f times ; therefore long and pointed. Upper jaw projectile, the furrow separating the skin of the premaxillaries from that of the forehead being evident. Mouth large, terminal, slightly oblique j the jaws equal. The maxillaries extend back to a vertical from the anterior edge of the pupil. The jaws both straight, the tip of the lower not being curved downward, as in A. pellucida. Up- per and lower jaws armed with recurved teeth. Vomer apparently with teeth. Opercular spine well developed. Opercles and cheeks apparently devoid of scales. Eye large, its diameter in the length of the head 3 times, exceeding the length of the snout. Interorbital space very nar row. 60 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Depth of the body in its length G times. Caudal peduncle in length of the body 4 times. Its depth in its length twice. Dorsal fin-rays X, 12; the spinous and soft portions well separated. The spinous dorsal beginning at a point one-third of the distance from the snout to the caudal fin. Its length four-fifths and its height one- half the length of the head. Soft dorsal with the same dimensions as the spinous dorsal. The distance between the last spinous ray and ihe, first soft ray equal to two-thirds the length of either portion of the dor- sal. Anal fin II, 10. Its length equal to two-thirds the length of the head, and its height one-half the head. This fin begins immediately opposite the first soft dorsal ray. The hard rays are slender and about one-half as long as the longest soft rays. The posterior portion of the body is densely scaled. There appear also to have been some scales on the anterior portion of the body above the lateral line, but in the single specimen known they are now missing. There are apparently no scales on the interior half of the body below the lateral line. There would probably be about sixty transverse rows of scales. The lateral line is deficient on five or six of the last scales of the caudal peduncle. The color of this little fish is pale straw, or in life, perhaps, pellucid. It is marked with some blotches and specks of olive, about 10 square spots along the back, and about as many along the lateral line. The spots are most distinct on the hinder portion of the body. Along the sides the last 4 or 5 are considerably the largest. There are a few specks of olive between the lateral and dorsal rows of spots. The top of the head is dusky, and there is a small but very distinct black spot at the base of the caudal. There are no distinct markings below or in front of the eye. From the Pearl Eiver at Jackson, Miss. 4. Percina caprodes (Raf.) Grd. — Hogfisli. Specimens of this species were captured at Vicksburg and at Jack- son, Miss. 5. Alvordius aspro Cope & Jor. — Black-sided Darter. One specimen was secured while seining in the Yalabusha Eiver at Grenada. It thus appears to have a very wide geographical distribution 6. Hadropterus spillmani Hay. — Spillrnan's Darter. I have another specimen of this fish from the Chickasawha Eiver, at Enterprise, Miss., but I obtained none in other parts of the State. It is not unlikely that this will prove to be a variety of II. migrofasdatus. However, there appear to be some differences between the two that, so far as we yet know, are constant. 7. Boleosoma olmstedi (Stor.) Ag. — Johnny Darter. A very few specimens of this Darter were obtained in the Eig Elack Eiver, near Edwards, and again in the Yalabusha at Grenada. As it BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 01 appears to be quite certain that the forms called B. olmstedi and B. maeulatwm belong to the same species, the older name, given above, must take precedence. 8. Pcecilichthys butlerianus,* sp. nov. Bodj' elongated, compressed; back somewhat arched. Head rather large, contained in the length 4 times. Snout gradually decurved. Mouth of medium size, very slightly oblique. Lower jaw equal to the upper. Maxillary reachiug back to a vertical from the anterior edge of the pupil. Upper jaw not projectile. Eye in the head 3£ times. Length of the snout three-fourths the diameter of the eye. Depth of the body in the whole length to the caudal 5| times ; caudal peduncle in the length 3 J times; its depth one-third its leugth. There are 44 transverse rows of scales, 3 longitudinal rows above the lateral line and about 12 below it, counting to the middle line of the belly. The lateral line is incomplete, there being pores in about 18 scales. It extends back to the last ray of the spinous dorsal. As in- dicated by the small number of rows of scales above it, it runs high up on the body. The structure of the fins is shown by the formula D. IX, 11 ; A. II, C. The spinous dorsal is as long as the head; its longest spine is contained 1§ times in the length of the head. The soft is in length four-sevenths and in height three-fifths the length of the head. Anal in length five- sevenths and in height one-third the head. Pectorals and ventrals reaching back nearly to the vent. Both these fins are narrow and pointed. The caudal is rounded. The spinous dorsal begins at a point one-third of the distance from the snout to the base of the caudal. The anal begins at a point one-half the distance from the posterior edge of the preopercle and the base of the caudal. The opereles have a row of enlarged scales along their lower edge. The cheeks are densely covered with small scales. Chest naked. Oper- cular spine well developed. As regards color, this fish is pale below, almost white, from the snout to the caudal fin. On the chest and abdomen this white area extends up- wards on each side as high as the upper edge of the base of the pecto- rals. On the caudal peduncle it is very narrow. The sides are orna- mented with irregular blotches of olive. On the caudal peduncle these blotches are confluent into somewhat indistinct zigzag markings. Along the back are about ten square blotches of the same olive color. The center of the operculum has a triangular blotch. The occipital region is dusky. There is a dark spot behind the eye, a dark streak across the snout from eye to eye, a spot just above each eye, and a streak be- low each eye. The eye, therefore, seems to be in the center of a dark cross. There is also a small black spot at the insertion of the caudal fin. *An abridgement of this description will be found in Jordan & Gilbert's Synopsil Fisbes N. A., p. 519. 62 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The ventral fins are white, the pectorals and anals nearly white. The dorsals and the caudal are ornamented with narrow dusky bars, which run transversely to the fin-rays. In life there is a scarlet band running along near the upper edge of the spinous dorsal. The specimen from which the above description is taken has a total length of two inches. It was seined from a shallow pool along the Big Black Eiver, near Vaughan's Station, Yazoo County, Mississippi, on the 20th of August. In the collection of fishes made at Memphis is another and smaller specimen of this species, the colors of which are arranged according to a more definite pattern. The square olive blotches along the back are more distinct. From each of the anterior five or six there is a nar- row band of the same color running downward and forward to the ventral region. On the posterior half of the body there are five or six bands, somewhat broader than the oblique ones just mentioned, that alternate with the dorsal blotches and run directly downward. 9. Vaillantia oamura (Forbes) Jor. Boleosoma camurum, Forbes, S. A. Bull. No. 2, Ills. Lab. N.at. Hist., 1878, 40. Vaillantia camura, Jordan, D. S. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 12, 89. Vaillantia chlorosoma, Hay, O. P. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., iii, 1880, 495. One specimen of this species was obtained at Memphis, Tenn., and another at Jackson, Miss. It now appears to be highly probable that the specimens that I de- scribed as V. chlorosoma, from Eastern Mississippi, belong to Professor Forbes's Boleosoma camurum, found in Illinois. 10. Microperca praeliaria Hay. — Southern Least Darter. This species was originally described from a single specimen seined at Corinth, Miss. On my last trip I succeeded in getting additional specimens at Memphis, from the Big Black at Edwards, and from the Pearl at Jackson. It therefore appears to be a common and rather widely-diffused species. It is known also from Alabama. The char- acters assigned the species in the original description hold good in the case of the new materials, except that my last specimens all have two anal spines instead of one, as in the type. Two are probably the normal number. LABEACID.E. 11. Morone interrupta Gill. — Brassy Bass. Two small specimens of this fish were secured at Memphis. It is re- ported to be a very common fish at some seasons, and to be very highly prized for food. CEXTEAKCntDiE. 12. Pomoxys sparoides (Lac.) Grd. — Grass Bass. Abundant specimens were captured at Memphis, Yicksburg, Edwards, Yaughan's, and Grenada. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. G3 13. Pornoxys annularis Kaf. — Crappic. I*robably even more abundant than the preceding ; found at Memphis, Jackson, and Vaughan's. 14. Centrarchus ruacropterus (Lac.) Jor. — Long-finncA Sun fish. Many specimens were seined from ponds along the Big Black west of Edwards. A few were taken at Jackson. 15. Lepomis pallidus (Mitch.) Gill & Jor. — Blue Sunfish, "Blue Brim." This species was found at every locality visited, except Memphis, where the failure to get it was no doubt accidental. Vicksburg, Ed- wards, Jackson, Vaughan's and Grenada. 16. Lepomis obscurus (Ag.) Jor. — Blue-moulheA Sunfish. One adult specimen was taken at Jackson. 17. Lepomia humilia (Grd.) Copo. — Bed-spotted Sunfish. A number of specimens of a Lepomis are in the collections from Mem- phis, Vicksburg, and Jackson, which I refer to this species. They be- long to that section of the genus characterized by having palatine teeth. The gill-rakers are about as long as those of L. pallidus. The oper- cular membrane is elongated into a conspicuous " ear." This is narrower at the base than further back, so that its shape is peculiar. There is a large black spot near the extremity of the flap; and this is surrounded by a broad band which, in alcoholic specimens, is silvery white; but which, in life, is probably of an orange or red color. The operculum is covered with large scales. The forehead is slightly convex to near the posterior border of the eye. At this point the front is suddenly elevated, so as form an angle between the head and the body. 18. Lepomis megalotia (Raf.) Cope. — Sun Perch. Ltpomis fallax Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, 499. Specimens of this variable fish were obtained at all points, except Memphis. Some of the specimens cannot be distinguished from speci- mens taken in Indiana, while others have quite a different appearance. Two small specimens captured in the Big Black at Vaughan's are of a dark color, and have a very short opercular flap. In other respects, how- ever, they agree with typical specimens. I have in my collection a fish from the Chickasawha River that I am compelled to refer to this species, but which departs still further from the ordinary form. The body is low for the genus, the height being contained 2f times in the length. The outline is regularly arched from the lip to the dorsal fin. The flap is not large, and is narrowly bor- dered with a pale color ; the eye is large, greater than the length of the snout, and contained in the head 3 times. Its color is its most remark- able feature, if there can be anything remarkable about the variations in color that a fish may exhibit. The snout and upper part of the head are of a livid blue; the flap is black, while the rest of the body is very 64 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. pale, almost white, with a few dusky markings along the side. Run- ning along each side of both the dorsals and of the anal there is a scar- let streak. The dorsal spines are low and slender, and the gill-rakers short. Lepomis fallax is doubtless a form of L. megalotis. 19. Apomotis cyaiiellus (Raf.) Jor. — Blue-spotted Sunfish. A number of line specimens of this fish were captured at Memphis, and others at Jackson. 20. Chaenobryttus gulosus (C. & V.) Jor. — Black Sunjish. Abundant everywhere. From the Mississippi at Memphis and Vicks- burg, the Big Black at Edwards and Vaughan's, the Pearl at Jackson, and the Yalabusha at Grenada. 21. Micropterus salmoides (Lac.) Henshall. — Large-mouthed Black Bass, "Trout. 7 ' An abundant fish everywhere. The young are found in every pond. Specimens were obtained at the same localities as the preceding. I have never succeeded in finding in the South a specimen of the small-mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu Lac. APHREDODERID.^. 22. Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams) DeK. — Pirate perch. This was found to be a rather common fish at most of the localities visited. Specimens are in the collections from Memphis, Yicksburg, Jackson, and Vaughan's. SCLENIDvE. 23. Haploidonotus grunniens Raf. — White rerch, Drum Grunter. Specimens of this species were secured at Vicksburg only. Evi- dences of its occurrence at Jackson were obtained. I have seen it cap- tured by a fisherman at Demopolis, Ala., at the confluence of the Black Warrior and Tombigbee Rivers. It is esteemed as one of the best food- fishes. ATHERIXDI^. 24. Labidesthes sicculus Cope. — Hirer Silrerside. This curious fish has representatives in my collections from the Mis- sissippi at Memphis, the Big Black at Edwards, the Pearl at Jackson, the Yalabusha at Grenada, and the Chickasawha at Enterprise. It is, therefore, probably distributed from Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico. 25. Menidia audena,* sp. nov. In form and appearance much like Menidia 7iotata, but with a broader, flatter head and a narrowed lateral silvery band. Head in the length of the body to the caudal 4£ times. Diameter of "An abridgment of this description will be found in Jordan & Gilbert's Synopsis Pishea N. A., p. 906. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. (jj the eye equal to one-third the length of the head, to the snout, and to the interorbital space. The width of the head across the occiput is equal to one-half the length of the head. Lower jaw oblique and equal in length to the snout. Mouth small, the cleft being about one-half the length of the lower jaw. Upper jaw concave and protractile. Lower jaw projecting slightly beyond the upper. The greatest depth in the length 6 times. The caudal peduncle is a little shorter than the head and its medium depth one-half its length. Dorsal tin IV or V-T, 8 or 9 ; Anal I, 17 or 18. The first spine of the the dorsal is situated a little in front of the first anal ray, and some- what nearer the base of the caudal than the snout. Height of spinous dorsal equal to one half the head. The two dorsals are separated by a space equal to twice the diameter of the eye. Beginning of the second dorsal two-thirds of the distance from the snout to the base of the cau- dal. Its height and length each equal to one-half the length of the head. First anal fin ray situated equally distant from the posterior border of the eye and the base of the caudal. Length of anal equal to head, its height three-fifths of the same unit. Pectoral fins extending beyond the insertion of the ventrals ; the latter attaining the vent. The anal aperture is a longitudinal slit, having a length in the larger individuals, equal to two-thirds the diameter of the eye. The begin- ning of the first, or spinous, dorsal is immediately over the anterior end of this slit. There are 45 transverse rows of scales, and 10 horizontal rows at the beginning of the first dorsal. The top of the head is covered with large scales as far forward as the anterior margin of the pupil. This covering of scales descends on each side, overlying the opercle and sending for- ward below the eye a row of enlarged scales to the angle of the lower jaw. On the lower edge of the opercle are two rows of smaller scales. The lateral line tuns above the silvery band for about 8 scales anteriorly, after which it drops below this band and continues thus until near the caudal fin where it runs into the band. This stripe, so characteristic of this genus, lies principally on the fifth row of scales below the dorsal fins. It is lacking on the upper and the lower ends of the scales of this row, while it involves the lower ends of those of the fourth row and the upper ends of those of the sixth row. Its width is one-half the diameter of the eye. Its upper edge is bordered by a narrow line of leaden blue. The scales of the body have entire edges. The postero-superior and postero-inferior borders of each scale are straight and meet each other at an obtuse angle. The exposed portions of the scales are therefore rhombic. The color is about that of M. notata. The edges of the scales on the upper surface are marked with a row of black dots, but not so conspic- uously as the above species. There is a dusky band along each side of the anal fin. Soft dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins sprinkled with black dots ; other fins plain. A few specimens were obtained at Memphis; many at Vicksburgj Bull. U. S. F. C, 82 5 Oct. 6, 1882. 66 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. one from the Big Black at Edwards ; and a few from the Pearl Biver at Jackson. The total length of the largest specimen is 3 inches. It perhaps ascends from the Gulf, although no specimens have yet been received from salt water. CYPBINODOXTIDJE. 26. Zygonectes dispar Ag. — Striped Minnow. A female of this species was obtained in the Big Black Biver, near Edwards, and a male in the Pearl at Jackson It has not been known hitherto to occur further south than Southern Illinois. 27. Zygonectes notatus (Raf.) Jor. — Top Minnow. Numerous specimens were obtained at Jackson, in the ponds along the Pearl Biver, and in a branch of the Yalabusha at Grenada. 28. Gambusia patruelis Baird & Girard. Zygonectes melanops Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, 501. A large number of specimens of the above species were found wherever I made collections during the past summer, except at Memphis. I had previously found the same fish at Artesia and Macon in Eastern Missis- sippi, and supposed that it was Professor Cope's Zygonectes melanops. In re-examining my materials from Artesia I found a single male that had been previously overlooked. This male possessed the peculiar intro- mittent anal fin of Gambusia, and therefore furnished a clew to the disposition to be made of the specimens. The males appear, for some reason, to be very rare. Out of twenty-four specimens that I have from Artesia but one is a male. Several specimens of those collected at Macon are yet at hand, but all are females. Of thirty-two specimens collected at Vaughan's all are females. I have one male from Vicks- burg and another from the Big Black at Edwards. All these males are considerably smaller than the average of the females. The description of Professor Cope's species agrees so well with the females of Gambit* ia jtatruelis, it may be a question whether it was not founded on such fe- males.* There is but one character that appears to distinguish the two, and that is the position of the dorsal fin with respect to the anal. In Z. melanops the dorsal is said to have its beginning opposite the middle of fhe anal ; in my specimens of G. patruelis it begins opposite the seventh anal ray. Zygonectes atrilatus, Jordan & Bray ton, is also probably the same fish. A large proportion of the females in my collections are greatly dis- tended with the partially-developed young. Localities. — Vicksburg, Edwards. Jackson, Vaughan's, Grenada. * This conclusion has been independently reached by Messrs. Jordan & Gilbert in the current volume of the Proceedings: cf. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. v, 1882, 257. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 67 ESOCIDiE. 29. Esox reticulatus Lo Sueur. — Green Pike. " Jackfish." Several specimens . of fishes belonging to the genus Esox were ob- tained in the Big Black, near Edwards, and in pools along the Pearl at Jackson, which I refer to the above species. I am not able to dis- tinguish my specimens from specimens of E. reticulatus from New Eng- land. The dorsal rays number as high as 17, as in E. reticulatus ; while there are said to be but 12 in E. Eavenelu. The series of vomerine teeth is certainly not longer than the palatine, while thej" are posteriorly weak and scattering. 30. Esox umbrosus Kirt. — Little Pickerel. This appears to be a very abundant fish in the Lower Mississippi Valley, as well as further north. Specimens were secured at Memphis, Jackson, Vaughan's, and Grenada. HYODONTID.E. 31. Hyodon selenops Jot & Bean. — Southern Moon Eye. Two specimens of this beautiful species were caught for me in the Pearl River at Jackson. 32. Clupea chrysochloris (Raf.) Jor. — Ship Jack. Two small specimens were secured at Yicksburg. 33. Dorosoma cepedianum (LeS.) Gill. — Hickory Shad. Abundant everywhere. Collected at Memphis, Vicksburg, Edwards, Jackson, and Grenada. CYPRIMDJE. 34. Hyborhynchus notatus (Raf.) Ag. — Blunt-nosed Minnow. Specimens of this widely distributed species were obtained at Vicks- burg, in the Big Black at Edwards, and in the Yalabusha at Grenada. 35. Hybognathus nuchalis Ag. — Blunt-jawed Minnow. Eybognathus argyritis Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, 503 (in part). Of the minnows in my collection belonging to the genus Hybognathus, there are two well-marked species. One of these I refer to Agassiz's species, H. nuchalis. tbe other to H. argyritis, Girard. The examination of a considerable number of specimens has led me to recognize the fol- lowing differences: H. nuchalis has a small eye, its diameter being equal to or less than the snout. The mouth is small and horizontal; the lower jaw is shorter than the upper, and is received within the upper in the closed mouth, so that the mouth is inferior. The suborbital bones are broader than in H. argyritis. This difference is especially noticeable in the case of the anterior suborbital, which in the species last named is very narrow. It may be said that in H. nuchalis the anterior suborbita is twice as long as wide, while in H. argyritis it is three times as long 68 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. as wide. The intestines of both species vary much in length. Those of IT. nuchalis are usually from 7 to 10 times as long as the whole body, but are occasionally shorter. H. argyritis has a large eye, its diameter exceeding the length of the snout. The mouth is small, but more oblique than in the other species; while the lower jaw is fully equal to the upper. The intestines are shorter than in H. nuchalis, being generally about 4£ or 5 times as long- as the body. Now and then one is found with the elementary canal 1\ times the body. The most obvious distinctions between the two species are to be found in the size of the eye and the position of the mouth, whether terminal or inferior. The specimens of Hybognathus that I collected at Macon, Miss., and described as above cited, belong here. Those collected at Enterprise were properly assigned to the next species. Numerous specimens collected at Memphis, Vicksburg, Edwards, Jackson, Vaughan's, and Grenada. 36. Hybognathus argyritis Grd. — Silvery Minnow. These appear to be quite as abundant as the preceding. Found at the same places. Tirodon, gen. no v. Pharyngeal teeth 2, 4-4, 2; compressed, not hooked, and with a broad triturating surface. Pharyngeal bones broad and sharply curved. In- testinal canal elongate and convoluted. No barbels at the angles of the mouth. Upper jaw protractile; both jaws tbin. Dorsal over the ventrals. (Etymology: zstpw, to wear away; ddoyc, tooth.) This genus is undoubtedly very closely related to Hybognathus, differ- ing apparently in no important respect except in having two rows of pharyngeal teeth instead of one. This character has hitherto been regarded as of sufficient value to distinguish genera, and I follow cus- tom. The intestinal canal in the specimen in my possession is not so elongate as in species of Hybognathus, being but 3i times the length of the body; but this canal in the latter genus varies so greatly in length in individuals of the same species that its shortness in the case before us may be an individual peculiarity. 37. Tirodon amnigenus, sp. no v. Form and general appearance much as in Hybognathus argyritis. In the single specimen known the head is broad while the body is much compressed. This may be due to mechanical injury to the specimen. Head long, contained in the body 3£ times. Both upper and lower jaws thin, the lower slightly the longer. Mouth rather more oblique than in Hybognathus argyritis, rather small, the maxillary not extending back to a vertical from the front of the eye. Eye contained in the head 3 times, equal to the snout. BULLETIN 01 THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 69 Teeth 2, 4-4, 2, without hook and with a masticatory surface; appear- ing to differ from those of Sybognathm only in being in two rows. Lateral line complete, running rather low anteriorly. Transverse rows of scales 38. Of the horizontal rows of scales there are five between the lateral line and the front of the dorsal, and three between the lateral line and the base of the ventrals. Dorsal I, 8; Anal I, 7. Dorsal slightly nearer the base of the caudal and the snout, beginning slightly in front of the ventrals, rather high, four-fifths the length of the head; its length one-half the same unit. Anal small; its height scarcely two-thirds the length of the head; its length about one-third the head. Caudal peduncle short, contained in the length of the body nearly 5 times; its depth about one-half its length. Color in spirits a clear yellowish green. The lower jaw, the sides of the head, and the body below the lateral line silvery. On the scales above the lateral line from head to tail there is a great number of minute black dots. A few of these occur just below the lateral line anteriorly, while on the hinder half of the body these punctulations are condensed into a dark line just above tbe line of pores. A row of black points arises at the beginning of the anal, and runs on each side backward to the base of the caudal. Top of the head dusky, fins pale. A siugle specimen, 1^ inches long, was obtained in the Pearl River at Jackson, Miss. 38. Alburnops taurocephalus Hay. — Bull-headed Minnow. This minnow appears to have a wide distribution in the South. I obtained specimens of it at Memphis, Vicksburg, Jackson, and Grenada. 39. Alburnops xaenocephalus Jor. Numerous specimens of this species were seined in the vicinity of Jackson. In the autumn of 1881 I received from Mr. W. A. Warner, of Enter- prise, Miss., a number of fishes which had lain in alcohol but a short time. Among these were several belonging to this species which showed some peculiarities of coloration that I have not seen described. The ground color on the upper half of the body is olive, below it is pale. A blue band runs along the side, palest on the anterior half, deepeniug posteriorly to indigo, and ending at the base of the caudal in a spot of the same color. Top of the head, opercles, and a band across the snout, leaden blue. Snout above the blue band rosy. Tip of lower jaw blue. A dark blue stripe along the back, broadest in front of the dorsal. Body below the lateral line white, except that there is more or less blue on the belly, and a blue streak on each side of the anal fin. The dorsal and the caudal fins are red. 40. Alburnops longirostris Hay. — Long-nosed Minnow. No specimens of this species were found on my last excursion. 1 have additional specimens from the Chickasawha River at Enterprise. In 70 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. these the edges of the scales, especially on the upper surface of the body, are tinged with purple. There is a faiut baud of purple along the sides, while the whole top of the head, the opercles, aud the snout are bluish purple. The bases of the dorsal and caudal fins are red. These colors are soon lost in alcoholic specimens. 41. Hemitremia maculata Hay. — Spot-tailed Hcmitreme. Several specimens of this species were secured at Vicksburg and at Jackson. 42. Luxilus cornutus (Mitch.) Raf. — Common shiner. No specimens of this species were found in Western or Central Mis- sissippi. It is abundant enough in the eastern part of the State. I have adult specimens from Enterprise. 43. Luxilus stigmaturus Jor. — Spot-tailed Minnow. Luxilus chickasavensis Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1880, iii, 506. This proves to be an exceedingly variable species, both in the form and proportions of the body and in the style of its ornamentation; and ou one of its forms was established the species chickasavensis. I have now specimens from the Big Black at Edwards, and from the Pearl at Jackson. These, together with specimens from Eastern Mississippi and from the Alabama River, enable me to give a more comprehensive description of the species. In form the fish varies from stout and heavy to elongated, the depth running from 3£ to 5 times in the length. The number of scales in a horizontal row ranges from about 36 to 45. The large jet-black spot at the base of the caudal fin is one of the most distinctive marks of the species; but in some of my specimens from the Big Black even this spot is obsolete. In other specimens taken along with these the spot is very distinct. The diameter of the eye is usually somewhat less than the length of the snout, sometimes equal to it; but in a few speci- mens it is contained nearly twice in it. A few of the specimens that I obtained were quite highly colored. The sides of the body were of a bright leaden blue, this color sometimes extending down to the bases of the paired fins. The scales on the dor- sal region were olive, edged with blue. Top of the head and a streak along the back also blue. The base of the caudal red, the top blue. The base of the dorsal red, the upper half filled with white satiny pig- ment. Anal and paired fins also charged with the same pigment. The resemblance of such highly colored individuals to L. unalostanus in their full nuptial dress is so complete that they might easily be mistaken for the latter species, were it not for the black caudal spot. Sometimes the males have considerable areas of their bodies covered with tubercles. Most commonly we find the tip of the snout swollen and densely covered with prickles. Behind this the regiou in front of the eyes, the whole upper surface of the head, and the middle line as far back as the dorsal fin are furnished more or less with similar prickles. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 71 In some cases we may find along the exposed edge of every scale, on each side of the body below the lateral Hue, beginning as far forward as the bases of the ventrals, a row of small, hard tubercles. These become larger and more numerous over the anal fin and on the caudal peduncle, and make these regions decidedly rough to the feel. They even con- tinue down on to the anal rays. Some of the males thus tuberculated show the faintest outlines of the caudal spot. 44. Ericymba buccata Cope. — Silver-mouthed Dace. This is one of the most common species of the Cyprinidcc in the Chick - asawha Eiver, but I have met with it at no point in the South nearer the Mississippi Eiver. I have specimens taken at Enterprise, in the autumn, that are much more highly ornamented than any that I have seen elsewhere. The edges of all the scales on the upper half of the body, except a triangular patch from the back of the head to the dorsal fin, are broadly edged with blue. Top of the head to the lower edge of the orbit blue. Snout blue. An ill-defined band of blue along the sides, most intense behind. Many blue specks scattered over the body below the lateral line and behind the ventrals. Dorsal and caudal red. 45. Opsopceodus eniiliee Hay. — Emily's Minnow. A very common minnow throughout the region visited. Collected at Memphis, Vicksburg, Jackson, and Grenada. 46. Minnilus dilectus (Grd.) C. & J. — Delectable Minnow. Collected at Memphis, Vicksburg, Edwards, Jackson, Grenada. 47. Minnilus rubripinnis Hay. — Mississ^n Red-fin. ^'o specimens of this species were obtained on my last trip. From new material obtained from the Chickasawha, in the autumn, and which had lain in alcohol but a short time, I add the following particulars as to the coloration : The scales above are olive, with dusky edges. There is a broad blue band along the sides, which becomes narrower, better defined, and of an indigo hue on the caudal peduncle. Whole top and upper half of the sides of the head, together with the tip of the lower jaw, blue. A blue streak on each side of the anal fin. A narrow dusky line running along the back from the occiput to the caudal fin. Dorsal fin red, with a blue stripe running along the tips of the rays. Caudal mostly red. Other fins and the lower part of the body white. 48. Minnilus lirus Jor. — Steel-sided Minnotv. Xototropis lirus Jordan, Aunals N. Y. Lye. Nat. Hist., xi, 1877, 34'..'. At Memphis I caught a single specimen of a Minnilus which I can- not distinguish from typical specimens of M. lirus from the Etowah Eiver, in Georgia. 49. Notemigonus chrysoleucus (Mitch.) Jor. — Shina: Found in abundance in the little lakes and ponds along the Mississippi 72 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. at Memphis and Vicksburg, in the Big Black at Edwards and Vaugkan's, and in the Pearl at Jackson. 50. Semotilus corporalis (Mitch.) Putnam. — Horned Dace. A few were found along the Big Black near Edwards. 51. Ceratichthys amblops (Raf.) Cope & Jor. — Big-eyed Chut. A few good specimens were secured in the Pearl River at Jackson. CATOSTOMIDJE. 52. Mozostoma macrolepidotum rar. duajuesnii (Le S.) Jor. — Red Horse. One well-characterized specimen of this species was obtained at Jack- son, Miss. 53. Moxostoma pcecilurum Jor. — Variegated-tailed Mullet. Moxostoma macrolepidotum et pwcilurum Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, 512. Two small specimens of a Moxostoma that were caught at Jackson are referred, with a good deal of doubt, to this species. They appear to have some indications of the peculiar coloration of the caudal fin of this species. The specimens of this genus described as above cited from Eastern Mississippi were all of this species, as a re-examination of my collection has shown. No doubt it exists throughout the southern half of the State. 54. Cycleptus elongatus (Le S.) Ag. — Black Horse; Missouri Sucker. One specimen having a total length of 21 inches was taken from the Pearl River. 55. Carpiodes carpio (Raf.) Jor. — Biver Carp Sucker. This is an abundant fish everywhere in the region visited. Speci- mens were obtained at Memphis, Vicksburg, Edwards, and Jackson. 56. Ictiobus cyprinella (C. & V.) Ag. — Brown Buffalo Fish. Quite as common as the preceding. The young were taken at Mem- phis, Vicksburg, Edwards, and Vaughan's. One specimen 9 inches long was taken in the Big Black near Edwards. SILURID.E. 57. Ictalurus punctatus (Raf.) Jor. — Channel Cat. Common everywhere and attaining a great size. Taken at Vicksburg, Edwards, Jackson, and Grenada. 58. Amiurus melas (Raf.) Jor. & Copeland. — Black Cat. Abundant everywhere. Specimens taken at every point visited, except Grenada. 59. Amiurus marmoratus (Holb.) Jor. — Marbled Cat. Two specimens that I refer to this species were captured at Memphis. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 13- One has a total length of 14 inches. The head is as broad as long and contained in the body 3£ times. Depth in the length 3£. Anal fin scarcely one-fourth the length of the body. The body narrows rapidly posteriorly. Interorbital space in the head 1| times. Branchiostegals 10. 60. Noturus leptacanthus ? Jor. Xoturus lepiaeauthus? Hay, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. iii, 1880, 514. In giving an account of a collection of fishes made in Eastern Missis- sippi in 1880, 1 referred to Professor Jordan's Noturus leptacanthus, with some hesitation, a specimen that I captured at Enterprise, Miss. I have now another specimen that I caught in a small sandy creek flowing into the Big Black River near Edwards. This preserves the characters shown by the Enterprise specimen, the spines being one-half, or nearly one-half, the length of the head. Without being able to compare it with typical specimens of Xoturus leptacanthus, I am not prepared to describe it as a new species. ANGUILLID^E. 61. Anguilla rostrata (LeS.)DeK. — American Eel. The head of a specimen of the common eel was given me by a fisher- man at Jackson. AMIID^. 62. Amia caiva L. — Bovofin Mud-fish; " GrinneU." Many of these were taken at Memphis. They are eaten by the negroes. LEPIDOSTEIDJE. 63. Lepidosteus osseus (L.) Ag. — Garfish. A very common fish. Found at Memphis, Yicksburg, and Jackson. 64. Atractosteus tristcechus (Blocli & Schn.) Gill.— Alligator Gar. Many of these were captured at Memphis, Yicksburg, and Jackson. One has a length of 19 inches. They are said to grow to a length of 8 feet or more. RECAPITULATION. The following table indicates the distribution of the species in the waters of Southwestern Tennessee, and in the northern two-thirds of the State of Mississippi, as shown in the collections that I have thus far made. In the first column are included the species collected at Corinth, Miss., Memphis, Tenn., and Vicksburg, Miss. Iu the second are checked the species collected at Edwards, Vaughan's, and Grenada, in the Big Black, and its tributary, the Yalabusha. The third column indicates the species taken from the Pearl. In the fourth column are noted the species taken from the Tombigbee and the Chickasawha. To enable us to compare these Southern fishes with those of the Mississippi Valley further north, I have added a fifth column, in which are checked those species that occur north of Kentucky. All, or nearly all, of these are found in the State of Illinois. ?4 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Table showing the distribution of the fresh -icater fishes of the Lower Mississippi Valley. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. €. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 5:;. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 6:t. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 7J. 7::. 74. 7.".. 78. 77. 78. Pi M 33 oS X P — ' IB « S ffl PL| X X Ammocrypta beanii Jor Ammocrypta vivax Hay Ioa vit'il Hay Percina caprodes (Eaf. ) Grd | x Alvordius aspro Cope & Jor I * Hadropterus spillmani Hay j Boleosoma olmstedi (Stor.) Ag I x Nanostoma elegans Hay I Nanostoma zonale (Cope) Jor Poecilichthys artesiaj Hay Poecilichthys saxatalis Hay Poecilichthys butlerianus Hay Vaillantia camura (Forbes) Jor Microperca pro3liaris Hay Morone interrnpta Gill Micropterus salmoides (Lac.) Hens ■/. Ambloplites rupestris (Raf.) Gill Cha'nobryttus gulosus (C. & V.) Jor x Apomotis cyanellus (Raf. ) Jor x Lepomis pailidus 'Mitch.) Gill &, Jor x Lepomis obseurus (Ag.) Jor Lepomis humilis (Grd.) Cope x Lepomis megalotis (Raf.) Cope j x Centrarchus macropterus (Lac.) Jor Pomoxys sparoides (Lac.) Grd ! x Pomoxys annularis Raf x Elassoma zonatum Jor ' Aphredoderus say aims (Gins.) DeK x Haploidonotus grunnieus Raf Labidesthes sicculua Cope x Menidia audens Hay x Zygonectes notatus* ( Raf. ) Jor Zygonectes dispar Ag I Gambusia patruelis B. & Grd x Esox reticulatus Le S Esox umbrosus Kirt x Hyodon selenops Jor & Bean Clupea chrysochloris (Raf.) Jor x Dorosoma cepedianum (LeS. ) Gill j x Hyborh\ nchus notatus (Raf.) Ag Hybognathus nuchalis Ag Hybognathus argyritis Grd Ti mkIi hi amnigi nus Hay Alburnops taurocephalus Hay Alburnops xanocephalus Jor Alburnops longirostris Hay ... lleinitremia maculata Hay Luxilus comutus (Mitch.) Raf Luxilns stigmaturus Jor Kric ymba buccata Cope Opsupoeodus eniilia- II. iv Mnmilus dilectus (Grd ) C. &. J Minnilus rabripinni i Hay Minn ih is lirus Jor Minnilus punctulatus Hay Minnilus bellua Hay Nbteiuigonua chrysoleucua ( Mitch.) Jor. . . . Semotilus corporal is (Mitch.) Putnam Ceratiehthya biguttatua (Kirt. ) Grd ' ( !eratichth\ s amblops (Raf.) Cope &. Jor Moxoslimia inn rolepidotum (Le S.) Jor Moxostoma pcecilurum Jor Erimyzon sucetta (Lac.) Jor Catostomus ntgricaus LeS CycleptoB elongatns (LeS.) Ag Carpiodea carpio (Raf.) Jor i x [ctiobna oyprmella (('. ^v J.) Ag. [ctalurue punetatus (Raf.) Jor A mi ii rus vulgaris (Thomp.) Nelson Amiiirus melas (Raf.) Jor. & Copeland Ainuinis marmoratna (Holb.) Jor Laptops olivaria i Raf.) J. St. Q X i it urns gyrinna (Mit.) Raf Noturus leptacanthue .'Jor Anguilla roatrata (Le S I DeK Amia calva L x Lepidostens osaeus (L.) Ac x Atractosteua trista'chus (Bloch & Schn.) Gill x ..... x BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 75 A glance at the above table will suffice to show that the fish fauna of all the streams in- the region under consideration is essentially the same. Indeed it appears to me that it would be somewhat hazardous in the present state of our knowledge to say that any fish now known from but one or two of these streams will not yet be found in all. All the species in the table except Morone interrupta, Minnilus Urus, Amiiirus marmoratus and Amia calva, have been collected by myself in the State of Mississippi. These species also doubtless occur in that State. Butler University, Irvington, Ltd., July 20, 1882. STRIPED BASS IN 1'IAMiATA.Mi RIVER, VIRGINIA. By It. HEALY. [From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] I see it stated in the New York Herald, under the heading "Sea-fish culture," that the "eggs of the striped bass have been hatched in many instances, but the place where they spawn in numbers sufficient to make it profitable to seek them on their breeding-grounds, has never yet been discovered." If this be true, probably I can give you a clew. The Piankatank River, upon which I live, is about 65 miles long. About 30 of this is estuary. The remainder is a fresh-water stream, about 25 or 30 feet wide, whieh makes its way, for 30 miles, through an alluvial country, and for 15 miles of the lower part through a cypress swamp. Tiie water is clear but dark colored, and the stream is 2 or 3 feet deep, with bars of white sand, and deeper holes where the bottom is covered with leaves and fallen wood. Up this stream, as far as I can remember, two kinds of rockfish have been caught; one a large fish with the stripes upon the sides broken ; on the other the stripes run from head to tail. The first we know as bass, the other as rock- fish. These fish when full of roe are called green-roe rock. They come up the river late in February and in March, and years ago were very abundant. They are becoming scarce in consequence of the high price of fish at the North, and the many devices to catch them, among others that of an old fellow named Norton (since dead), who used to make a coarse wattle across the stream with a large hole in it. At this he would stand with a large hand-net, in the night, and whenever he felt a fish, would raise it quickly and land the fish on shore. All these fish had large green roes — very fine — finer than shad or herring. A friend of mine told me that one morning Norton brought him three of these fish, and told him he had taken over a dozen during the night, and would have taken more but that an immense fish had broken his net. I have seen them taken in seines, but never with hook and line. Those that bite at hooks have very small roes, yellowish-white, which are called "he-roes." These fish are becoming scarce. Very few large 76 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ones are now caught, and none but large fish have the green roes. I never saw a green roed rock less than 2£ feet long; some are much larger. A good many small fish, 2 or 3 inches long, are seen in the summer and in the winter ; sometimes thousands are caught at a haul from 10 to 20 inches long. I recollect a haul made about 40 years ago, when 800 of these fish, over 3 feet long, were taken, and I think tbe largest weighed over 70 pounds. Rockfish could be bought then for less than a cent a pound. ]$ow they are worth 8 cents at the seine. Harmony Village, Va., January 30, 18S2. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS RELATIVE TO CATFISH. By CHARLES E. HIESTER. A. — Name. 1. What is the name by which this fish is known in your neighbor- hood?— A. The catfish. B. — Distribution. 2. Is it found throughout the year, or only during a certain time; and for what time 1 ? — A. They are found in warm days in February, and all through the warm weather; when the water freezes they go into the mud. C. — Abundance. 3. If resident, is it more abundant at certain times of the year; and at what times? — A. They are most abundant about May 1. 4. How abundant is it, compared with other fish? — A. At least fifty times more abundant than any other. 5. Has the abundance of the fish diminished or increased within the last ten years? — A. Increased. G. If diminished or increased, what is the supposed cause? — A. Almost every egg hatches, and the young ones are not relished as food by other fishes on account of their stingers; bass and pike are about the only fish that can eat them. D. — Size. 8.* What is the greatest size to which it attains (both length and weight), and what the average? — A. Fourteen inches length; 1 to If pound. Average, 10 or 11 inches; and average weight, three-fourths of a pound. 9. State the rate of growth per annum, if known ; and the size at one, two, three or more years. — A. One year old, 3 inches; two years old, 5 to G inches; after that, cannot say. 10. Do the sexes differ in respect to shape, size, rate of growth, &c? — A. No difference except just before spawning. * ( Vi tain questions in the list were not answered and their omission accounts for the numbers not, being consecutive. For lull list of questions see Report of the Commis- siouer, part I. page 3. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 77 E. — Migrations and movements. 25. xVre these fish anadromous; that is, do they run up from the sea iuto fresh water for any purpose? And if so, for what? — A. I don't think the catfish is anadromous. 30. What are the favorite localities of this fish? Say whether in still water or currents, shallow or deep water, on the sand, in grass, about rocks, &c. — A. Still, deep water, with mud bottom. 31. What depth of water is preferred by these fish? — A. Three to four feet appears to suit them very well. 32. What the favorite temperature and general character of water"? — A. Still, cloudy water, near the temperature of spring water, but warmer. F. — Relationships. 33. Do these fish go in schools after they have done spawning, or throughout the year, or are they scattered and solitary? — A. Before spawning they go in schools; after spawning the large ones scatter. 34. Have they any special friends or enemies ? — A. Enemies. Musk- rats and snapping turtles take them from behind, and eat all but the head and stingers; pike and bass take them head first and swallow the whole fish. They live and thrive in. the midst of their enemies. In one winter, in a single runway 10 feet wide and 100 yards long, 20 bushels of marketable fish were taken ; and in the same winter we caught 75 snappers, weighing from 4 to 10 pounds, and 115 muskrats, within a space of three-fourths of a mile immediately surrounding the runway. 35. To what extent do they prey on other fish, and on what species? — A. Never found another fish inside of a catfish. 36. To what extent do they suffer from the attacks of other fish or other animals ? — A. Less than any other fish, on account of their stingers. G. — Food. •*->' 37. What is the nature of their food ? — A. They appear to live on the larvae of insects and on flies that fall into the water; they never jump out of the water. H. — Reproduction. 40. Is there any marked change in the shape or color of either sex during the breeding season; or any peculiar development of, or on any portion of the body, as the mouth, fins, scales, &c? — A. No change in color, but softer. 41. Are there any special or unusual habits during the spawning season? — A. They burrow under the mud. 43. At what age does the male begin to breed, and at what age the female? — A. Two years. 46. Where do these fish spawn, and when? — A. In shallow water; in June. 48. Is the water ever whitened or colored by the milt of the male? — A. Just where the spawn is the water appears to be cloudy. 78 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 49. What temperature of water is most favorable for hatching? — A. Ordinary ditch water in June, away from the spring. 50. At what depth of water are the eggs laid; if on or near the bottom? — A. One to three feet, and on the bottom. 51. What is the size and color of the spawn ? — A. Color, dark brown; size varies with the age of the fish. 52. What is the estimated number for each fish, and how ascer- tained 1 ? — A. Never counted them; should judge from 1,000 to 2,000. 54. Do the eggs, when spawned, sink to the bottom and become at- tached to stones? — A. They sink to the bottom f do not know whether they are attached or not. 55. Do the fish heap up or construct any kind of nest, whether of sand, gravel, grass, or otherwise; and, if so, is the mouth, the snout, or the tail used for the purpose, or what; and, if so, how is the material trans- ported ; or do they make any excavation in the sand or gravel? — A. They make no nest at all that I have seen. 56. Do they watch over their nest, if made, either singly or in pairs ? — A. They watch singly. 57. When are the eggs hatched, and in what period of time after being laid? — A. Cannot say certainly, but think in two or three days. 58. What percentage of eggs laid is usually hatched? — A. Every egg. 59. What percentage of young attains to maturity ?— A. All, except those destroyed by snappers, muskrats, and bass, which is a very small percentage; never saw a dead one. GO. What is the rate of growth ? — A. About 3 inches a year. 61. Do the parents, either or both, watch over the young after they are hatched? — A. One parent watches under them after they are hatched. 62. Do they carry them in their mouth or otherwise ? — A. No. 63. What enemies interfere with, or destroy the spawn or the young fish? Do the parent fish devour them? — A. I know of no enemies to cither, and think the parents do not devour them. 64. Are the young fish found in abundance, and in what localities? — A. Yes; they travel in schools in shallow water. 65. On what do they appear to feed? — A. Never saw them feed on anything. I. — Artificial culture. 66. Have any steps been taken to increase the abundance of this fish by artificial breeding? — A. No. K. — Protection. 67. Are these fish protected by law, or otherwise ? — A. No. L.— Diseases. 68. Has any epidemic or other disease ever been noticed among them. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION 79 such as to cause their sickness or death in greater or less number ? — A. No, except sulphur water from the mines along the Susquehanna. M. — Parasites. 70. Are crabs, worms, lampreys, or other living animals found at- tached to the outside or on the gills of these fish ? — A. Never found any. ST. — Capture. 71. How is this fish caught; if with a hook, what are the different kinds of bait used, and which are preferred? — A. For hook, red angle- worm. 72. If in nets, what kind? — A. Funnel or set net. 73. At what season and for what period is it taken in nets, and when with the line ? — A. Pond fish are best in the spring. Kiver fish are caught all the year round, but principally in spring. 76. Is the time of catching with nets or pounds different from that with lines ? — A. No. O. — Economical value and application. 78. What disposition is made of the fish caught ; whether used on the spot or sent elsewhere; and, if so, where! — A. The demand of the home market for these fish is in excess ot the supply. 79. What is its excellence as food, fresh or salted? — A. It is one of the very best of the small pan-fishes, and has no noticeable small bones. 80. How long does it retain its excellence as a fresh fish?— A. As long as any other fish, and longer than most of them. 81. To what extent is it eaten ? — A. It is eaten and relished by all classes of people, and they would eat more of them if they could get them. 82. Is it salted down, and to what extent? — A. It is not salted down, because the demand of the fresh fish exceeds the supply. 83. Is it used, and to what extent, as manure, for oil, or for other purposes, and what? — A. Its quality as a table fish will ever prevent it being used for any other purpose. 84. What were the highest and lowest prices of the fish per pound during the past season, wholesale and retail, and what the average, and how do these compare with former prices? — A. Retail, 12 to 20 cents; average, 15 cents; The price does not vary in our market. 86. Where is the principal market of these fish ? — A. They will sell anywhere. Harrisburgh, Dauphin County, Pa., March 21, 1882. SO BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. REPORT OPi 1 Hi. EDIMU'liCn FISHERIES EXHIBITION. By J. A. LEONARD. [Dispatch to the State Department; transmitted to the U. S. Fish Commission.] The International Fisheries Exhibition referred to in previous dis- patches from this consulate, was held at Edinburgh, Scotland, opening on the 12th and closing on the 29th of April, 1882. It was, both in the extent of the exhibition and in the attendance it attracted, very satis- factory. Notwithstanding the prevalence of bad weather during much of the time, the attendance was quite large, the number of visitors ranging from 7,000 to 15,000 a day, and aggregating about 150,000 for the whole sixteen days. The visitors were principally from Scotland, and most of them from places easily accessible to Edinburgh. It was remu- nerative, taking in about $29,000 as the proceeds of admission tickets. The exhibition was under the control of the Scotch Fisheries Improve- ment Association and other societies, and was intended to include all kinds of articles connected with or illustrative of the fisheries of the world. The number of exhibits was 527, of which .302 were from Scot- land, 89 from Englaud, 44 from Sweden, 31 from Norway, 21 from Ger- many, 12 from Denmark, 4 each from Ireland, the United States, and Italy, 3 each from Russia, France, and Switzerland, 2 from Canada, and 1 each from Holland, Spain, Iceland, China, and Africa. It will be no- ticed that there were very few exhibits from the United States. Messrs. Conroy, Bissett & Mallison, of New York, had on exhibition some samples of fishing-rods of their manufacture. Their peculiarity consisted in being made of cane split and joined in such a way as to secure lightness, combined with strength, and they were, besides, very handsomely finished. I was told by a Scotch manufacturer that the Americans gave their rods a finish that cannot be got in this country, but that the American article costs more than those made here, say about 85 on a $30 set. A silver medal was awarded to Conroy, Bissett & Mallison for their exhibition of rods and tackle. The Gloucester Isinglass and Glue Company, of Gloucester, Mass., made an excellent exhibition of several varieties of isinglass and glue manufactured from fish-skins, samples of articles in the manufacture of which they are used, specimens offish-skins before manufacture, and samples of guano. They were awarded a silver medal for glue and isinglass, a silver medal for the application of them to many useful ends, and a diploma for guano made from the refuse of the company's manufacture. E. G. Blackford, of Fulton Market, New York, sent from there samples of American fresh fish, striped bass, shad, red snapper, pompano, and brook trout. Hugh D. McGovern, of Brooklyn, N. Y., had on exhibition a rare prepared specimen, a year-old trout, surmounted by the fish-eating bug, Belastoma BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 81 grandis, which was destroying the fish by piercing its head. There were some samples of canned fish from the United States, exhibited by im- porters, among collections showing their imports from different countries. Models of California salmon-breeding trays with catch-box were exhib- ited by Max von dem Borne, of Berneuchen, Custin, Prussia. He was awarded a silver medal for the deep and for the plain California trough. A collection of very handsome, large, colored illustrations of the game water fowls and game fishes of America were exhibited by Professor Archer, director of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. A series of large, handsome photographs of American salmon were exhib- ited by John Clark, of Glasgow, Scotland, for which he was awarded a diploma. A plaster cast of an American black bass was exhibited from tire collection of the late Frank Buckland. The most extensive contribution to the exhibition was the Swedish collection, comprising preparations from the Gotenborg Museum, show- ing all the stages of development of fish and their condition at differ- ent periods of life, a large number of scientific specimens and curiosities obtained in the Arctic voyage of Professor Nordenskjold in the Vega, and a great variety of products of the fishing industry of Sweden. In the department of the history of fishing there was an interesting collec- tion of fishing implements found in the Swiss lake dwellings, which were sent by the Society of Antiquaries of Zurich. In the loan collec- tion were a great many very fine specimens of stuffed fishes and aquatic birds and casts of fishes, the largest display being from the museum of the late Frank Buckland, at London. There was a good display, more than one hundred exhibits, of cured, packed, and preserved fish, princi- pally from Scotland, but a large proportion from Norway. A prominent feature was the exhibition of boats and implements used in fishing, including a number of models of boats of various classes, especially those adapted to herring fishing. The frequent losses of life that have occurred by the destruction of fishing boats off Scotland and neighboring coasts have made the substitution of safer vessels than those now in use of great importance, and the increased profits result- ing from the use of steam trawlers has made the substitution of steam for sails on fishing craft generally a question of much practical interest Pisciculture has not received the attention in Scotland that might be expected from the importance here of the subject, but interesting dis- plays of hatching and feeding apparatus were made from the hatcheries of Byram Littlewood, of Huddersfield, England; Sir James Gibson Maitland, of Stirling, Scotland, and Joseph J. Armistead, of Dumfries, Scotland. Mr. Littlewood also exhibited oysters produced by artificial contact of the sperm and ova in artificial sea water by a process of his invention. He claims that, while an American' experimenter has suc- ceeded in hatching the oyster, no one but himself has succeeded as yet in growing it beyond one of the earliest stages of development. He showed living specimens which he had kept in continuous growth from three to five months, which is as long as he has been experimenting in Bull. U. S. F. C, 82 6 Oct. 6, 1 8 82. 82 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. that direction, and expressed full confidence in the practicability of hatching and rearing oysters abundantly and profitably. Ten thousand fish about three weeks old were on exhibition by Constantine Muszynski, of St. Petersburg, Russia, which had been transported from there in a large glass bottle of his invention, with concave sides, without the loss of more than a dozen of the fry, and in excellent condition. A live sea anemone, Actinia mesenbryanthemum, was exhibited, which was taken from the east coast of Scotland in 1828, and has ever since been kept in the jar in which it was shown. It was at that time thought to be at least 7 years old. During a period of 20 years it produced 334 young. In 1851, after being unproductive for many years, it gave birth, in a single night, to 240 young, and last February it gave birth to 7 more, of which 3 were exhibited with it. It is kept in sea water, and is fed once a month with half of a live mnsser, and on the following day the water is changed. A number of models of salmon ladders and fish passes were exhibited, those built around high falls in a river in Norway showing the greatest skill in overcoming natural obstacles. The purification of the water, which, after use in factories, is returned to the streams in a condition fatal to fish, is a subject of great importance in connection with the preservation of the salmon and trout of this country. There were models of apparatus and samples of water exhib- ited showing the success that had been attained at several places in England and Scotland in separating the impurities in a condition suit- able for reuse or merchantable for manure, and returning the water to the streams purified. The Native Guano Company exhibited living fish surviving in water from the factories of Aylesbury, England, which had been purified by this process. An exhibition of Balmain's luminous paint attracted a great deal of attention. The paint, which in the light looks like common white paint, has the peculiar quality of emitting a pale light (phosphorescent in appearance, though said to contain no phosphorus) when shown in a dark chamber, and it is claimed thai ves- sels, buoys, or other objects painted with it may be plainly distinguished at a distance in the dark. A machine for fish-cleaning, the invention of John Ross, of Stonehaven, Scotland, was exhibited. It is claimed that by its use five girls can clean a hundred score of haddocks in three hours, and that the fish are less liable to be injured than by hand-clean- ing. It consists of a series of stiff brushes, revolving on a cylinder. Among the nets, Thomas Davidson, of Aberdeen, Scotland, exhibited one called the jackal net, a long, narrow net, by dropping which from a boat it is claimed that it may be seen whether there are any herring under the boat and at what depth. The exhibition was not only interesting as a collection of a great variety of articles well worth seeing, but there can be no doubt that it has well subserved the main object of its projectors, that of directing attention to the extent ami importance of the fishing interest, which con- stitutes one of the; most valuable industries of the country. United States Consulate, Leith, May 18, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 83 THE UTILIZATION OF LOCALITIES IN NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK SUITABLE FOR THE CULTIVATION OF MUSSELS AND OTHER SHELL FISH. By CHARLES W. HARDING, Assoc. M. Inst. C. E., King's Lynn. [Prize Essay, National Fisheries Exhibition, Norwich, 183L ] It may be fairly assumed that there is not a square yard of our coasts which has not been visited by the spawn or spat of the mussel (MyUlus edulis); and it would therefore appear that, in those places where mus- sels have not been found, nature protests, as it were, against them; some important conditions necessary for their development must be wanting in the water, soil, or temperature. Mussel spat, which is free for a short time after extrusion from the parent, will not, as a rule, attach itself in any quantities on a barren sand, but will attach itself in large quantities on sands which contain cockles, although those sands may appear at first sight to be sterile. As the young mussels which have set on the cockle beds grow and be- come thicker, the cockles are choked and die; but this is a very insecure resting-place, as from the nature of the soil they are liable to be scat- tered and destroyed by the sea, unless the bed is well sheltered. The most favorable locality for the permanent welfare of the embryo mussel is from five to fifteen feet above low-water spring tides, on a beach or shore consisting of sand well covered with clean sea-worn stones, varying from the size of a walnut to that of a cricket-ball and larger; this makes a hard, unshifting bed, not easily disturbed by the action of the sea, unless in very exposed localities. I do not think it possible to demonstrate by maps where mussels can be best cultivated unless a general survey of the coasts of these islands is made, and such favorable localities delineated thereon. Mussels may be found attached to various objects. Large quantities are found hanging to the piles of bridges, where the water is not too fresh. They are found in large quantities on buoys and vessels moored at sea, such as light-vessels; but, although they are found in such places, it does not follow that they can be best cultivated there. In British waters, spatting usually takes place in the early spring, and does not appear to be at all dependent on warm weather. On December 7, 1877, I examined some of the undeveloped embryo taken from a spatting mussel, with a microscope, and found it to have a reddish appearance, and of the following shape, O O O and about the five-hundredth part of an inch in di- q q "q °^ ^ ameter. It would not polarize, so I conclude the O shell was not formed. On December 12, 1879, I found large quan- tities of mussels to contain similar embryos, the weather at the time 84 BULLETIN OF THE -UNITE1> STATES FISH COMMISSION. being very severe. On December 3, 1880, I found the same. The win- ters of 1S79-'S0 and 188CM81 were exceptionally cold, so that it appears they are not dependent on "heat and tranquillity n for their proper de- velopment. On May 25, 1879, after a very severe winter of abont nine weeks' con- tinuous frost, I found on one of the beds under my charge several acres of brood mussels, about the tenth of an inch in length. In the spring of the year 1879 and the spring of 1880 overwhelming quantities of brood were found on the scalps on the east coast of England, which might be measured by hundreds and thousands of acres. Where mussels are found in thick and dense masses, they will be three years before they are what is called "sizable," that is, two inches in length j but instances are found near low- water mark where a few have become isolated, and have grown much more rapidly. I do not think that mussels will spat, or rather that the spat will ma- ture, in partially salt water. The only places where I have ever seen any young brood is where the water has the same degree of saltness as the outside sea, which, on the east coast of England, has a density of about 1026.J, distilled water being 1000. Although it appears that salt water is necessary at their birth, brackish water is better adapted for fattening and growing, provided they are covered with the tide at high water. I find by experience that the most suitable degree of saltness of the water for fattening purposes is where the density of the water is about 1014. This likewise applies to the fattening of oysters. To save the bulk of the spat when free is the great object of mussel culture, therefore it is imperative to have the ground of the natural sea bed as free from sand, weeds, and mud as possible, so that the young may have some clean hard substance to which it can attach itself. Aseidians and sponges are very destructive to the young mussel, as they cover the culch, which would otherwise be favorable for their at- tachment. Mussels have a great many natural enemies, amongst which may be mentioned the star-fish or five-finger, the dog-whelk {Purpura lapillus), the sea-urchin or echinus, sea birds, Danish crows, and sometimes rats; but star- fish deal the most wholesale destruction. I have known ten acres of a thickly covered scalp to be almost denuded in a fortnight. Last summer I had carted from beds under my control between two and three hundred tons of this fish. The star-fish will always attack small mussels in preference to those of larger growth. It first grasps the mussel with its five fingers, and when the mussel opens slightly to breathe and feed, it inserts its stomach, or part of it, into the body of the mussel, when, I believe, digestion commences, and the mussel dies and opens its shell, and the star-fish withdraws its stomach with the meat of the mussel. This operation I have seen performed, in all its stages, thousands of times, upon oysters, mussels, and cockles. The dog-whelk bores a hole in the shell of the mussel about the size of a small pin-head, and destroys it. BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 85 The sea-urchin also bores a hole in the shell of the mussel, but much larger than the dog- whelk, the hole being about the size of a sixpence. This very rarely occurs. I have only seen three instances, and that on large mussels near low-water mark. Sea birds, Danish crows, and rats break the shell and devour the mussel. I consider the best and only way that existing natural mussel beds can be properly cultivated and protected is to make them the actual property of some one. If they are allowed to be fished indiscriminately they will quickly become exhausted, as has been the case with hundreds of natural scalps on the coast. Fifty years ago mussels were very prolific on the east coast of Eng- land, and almost every small harbor had its natural scalp outside, which fed the "lays" or fattening grounds inside, to the great profit of the owners of such lays. About that period some ill-starred individual dis- covered they were valuable for manure, when commenced a raid on the scalps, which is the origin of their present downfall. I can remember, as a boy, seeing hundreds and thousands of tons brought to land and sold to the farmers for manure, at three-halfpence a bushel An act was passed by Parliament in 1868, called "The sea fisheries act, 18GS," which enables the board of trade to grant provisional orders to corporations and private individuals to regulate oyster and mussel fisheries; but the result, so far, has been very unsatisfactory. The reports of Mr. H. Cholmondeley Pennell and Mr. W. E. Hall, two of the inspectors of fisheries, on the oyster and mussel fisheries, at eighteen different stations, show the beds to be worked in a very unsatisfactory manner. Mr. Hall reports in 1877 that the Boston corporation undertook to regulate the fishing in Boston deeps in the year 1870, so as to maintain the supply. The oyster beds, he states, remain in the state of denuda- tion which characterized them in 1869. The supply of mussels, how- ever, seems to be rapidly diminishing, from the persistent poaching of the fishermen and from want of power of the corporation under their "order" to close a sufficient portion of the ground every year. A simi- lar "order" was granted to the corporation of King's Lynn in 1872. Mr. Hall reports on this "order" that the corporation system of man- agement in regard to mussels is dangerous to the permanent welfare of the fishery, whilst as regards oysters the order is not carried into effect. Under clause 4 of the order, the corporation is compelled to keep open for fishing two-thirds of the area of the oyster and mussel beds, thus leaving a large porportion of the whole in a great measure at the mercy of the fishermen ; and Mr. Hall justly points out the danger to which the mussel beds of the wash are necessarily exposed from this provision. When a mussel bed is opened by either of the above-mentioned cor- porations, a day is fixed and duly advertised, and at twelve o'clock at night scores of boats commence taking the mussels, some by tons and 86 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. some only by a few bushels. The next day the markets are glutted with small mussels, and in some instances I have known them to be unsaleable. Even at the best they only make very small prices, whereas if they had been gradually sent to the various markets good prices would have been made. These provisional orders are simply a farce, as far as regards providing the long-line fishermen with mussels. I am the lessee of about eleven miles of sea beach on the Norfolk coast, belonging to Harnon Le Strange, esq., whose title to the propri- etary right descends from a grant made in the eleventh century by William II to William d'Albini, his butler. The fishing on this beach consists of mussels, cockles, clams, 'winkles, and a few oysters. When I hired the fishing, six years ago, there was not one ton of mussels on the whole eleven miles. I appointed watchers, enforced a close time, cleaned the ground, and endeavored to keep off poachers, but with very indifferent success. Mr. Le Strange, in 1879, applied to the board of trade for the grant of an order for the establishment and maintenance of a several oyster and mussel fishery, under the powers of "The sea fisheries act, 1868," so as to provide a better protection for the fishery. The board of trade sent an inspector down to hold an in- quiry as to the proposed order, but from that day to this the order has not been granted. If such an order could be obtained it would greatly benefit the long- line fishermen off the coasts of Northumberland and the south of Scot- land, as I have special railway rates to all the ports on these coasts, and can afford, when I have any mussels, to deliver them at a reason- able price for bait. The importance of mussels for bait to these deep- sea line boats is incalculable. Mr. P. Wilson, Her Majesty's fishery officer at Eyemouth, in Scotland, reports that in one week the boats from Burnmouth, Coldingbam, and Eyemouth used for baiting their long lines 61 tons of mussels. They landed, with this quantity of mussels, 25,620 stone of haddocks, besides a considerable quantity of cod and whiting, and got for the fish Is. 8d. per stone, equal to about £2,500. Observe, in one week alone 61 tons of mussels were used at these three fishing stations for bait, the cost of which was about £160, the produce in fish from which was 25,620 stone, worth £2,500. Mr. Wilson also reports that when the fishermen are unable to obtain mussels, they have had to bait their lines in many in- stances with bullock*s liver, and be content with half a catch of fish. The greatest trouble I have in protecting my mussel beds is from a class of men who call themselves fishermen, but who are half farm- laborers and half fish hawkers, and arc the scum of the villages border- ing on the coast. 1 have lost from two to three thousand tons of mus- sels in one year by these men, which would otherwise have gone to Scotland to be used as bail by real fishermen. All of this might have been prevented had the board of trade granted a provisional order for BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 87 this fishery when requested. I have read somewhere that the detiuition of the word " fisherman " is a man skilled in fishing, who proceeds to sea in a vessel, and by means of an engine catches fish. The men who rob me of my mussels do not proceed to sea, and have no skilled knowl- edge of fishing. They also rob the country of an enormous quantity of fish food, which would otherwise be caught and consumed. Taking Mr. Wilson's figures that sixty-one tons of mussels will catch £2,500 worth of haddocks, cod, and whiting, one thousand tons of mussels would catch about £41,000 worth of fish. I consider that where natural beds of mussels have once existed and the ground has not altered, there new mussel beds may be established and cultivated; but the government must grant provisional orders to persons desirous and willing to take in hand the cultivation of mussels and oysters, and not allow the officials at the board of trade to prevent the granting of such orders. The orders must enforce heavy penalties on persons illegally taking the mollusks, and provide for the imprison- ment of those people who are unable to pay the fines and costs, as the greatest amount of poaching is done by the impecunious inhabitants of the villages adjacent to the shore, and whose forefathers, a hundred years ago, were the wreckers and smugglers of that age ; in fact, ille- gally taking oysters and mussels from a several fishery should be felony. Mussels are largely cultivated on the Continent. The exports from Antwerp for Paris alone, as recorded in the u Halles Centrales Statis- tic," for the season of 1873, amounted to 7,000,000 francs (£280,000), which are the produce of natural beds and scalps unimproved by man's care. In the town of St. Valery-sur-Somme, in France, artificial breeding, rearing, and fattening of mussels, upon principles akin to those which obtain in ostreaculture, is carried on, and the success attained is such as to be worthy of a record in the history of attempts made to utilize the unbounded wealth of food lying ready to man's hand along the sea- shore. Lines of wattled stakes, averaging 530 yards in length, are driven in the sand close to the fair-way, just above low-water mark. These les bouchots de grand flat extend over 25 acres. They serve for fixing the spat, which is floated up to them by the tidal currents, and constitute a collecting ground for brood, which are afterwards removed into shallow tanks of about 50 acres, dug out high on the strands be- tween the tide marks. They are puddled with clay and fitted with sluice-gates. The salt water in these tanks is slightly admixed with soft river water. They also serve as nurseries for the young mussels, which hang in clusters and gather on wattles. When they attain proper size for transplanting they are removed into tkejjarc, where they will grow and develop into marketable mussels. All this is being successfully carried out by M. Lemaire, who obtained from the French Government, in 1873, leave to appropriate a small strip of 40 acres of the foreshore fringing the low sandy estuary of the Somme. The success of this short 88 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. experiment was 80 marked, that after an official visit paid by the min- ister of marine, Admiral Fonrichon, and a number of savants, including M. Coste, who had predicted a failure, that the original concession was extended to 620 acres. There are numerous other places on the continent of Europe where oyster and mussel culture is successfully carried on. The secret of the whole matter is, that where mussel and oyster cul- ture has proved successful, the person undertaking the same has ob- tained a concession from the government to work the beds exclusively himself, and has not been hampered by other persons claiming a right to fish on his grounds ; in other words, fishings are worked in precisely the same way as farms on the land, where the farmer sows his seed and at the proper season reaps his corn. In England the laws allow the seed to be sown and protected to a certain extent, and when the mollusks are a certain size, i. Fig. 3. fine gravel — the filter — and thus enters the vessel No. 2 in a purified condition. By means of a simple suction and forcing pump, A, with the sucker B, the water is, through the tube 0, pumped into the raised vessel. In the center of the firm outer lid there is a perforated stopper, «, and below it a large opening in the inner lid, which can also be closed by a perforated lid ; this is intended for filling, removing, and observing the transporting vessel No. 1. A floating lid, e, in vessel No. 3 indicates the height of the water by a plummet, ft, connected therewith. Through the lid a the quantity and temperature of the water in vessel No. 2 can be observed, and, if necessary, it can be cooled off by means of ice. In this manner all the necessary conditions are fulfilled. The shak- ing of the water has been rendered impossible, as in consequence of the outlet-pipe, fastened between the upper and inner lids, the vessel is always entirely filled with water, and is still sufficiently provided with air. The introduction of water with the air at the bottom of the vessel serves to expel the carbonic acid and thus constantly renews the water. Whilst the raised vessel can be pumped full in 15 minutes, it takes the BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 101 water several hours to flow out, so tbat the person iu charge of the fish is not worked too hard. This apparatus has been very successfully used in the journey from Trieste to Berlin, which lasts 72 hours. Vessel !No. 1 con- tains 24 hundred- weight, and the two others half that quantity. If there are enough persons to superintend and do the work, vessel No. 3 can be dispensed with by pumping water from vessel Xo. 2 into vessel No. 1 direct, through tube C, which should be provided with air-tubes, and which must reach to the bottom of the vessel. I prefer this method to the first-mentioned one, as in consequence of the greater pressure of the water, produced through the pump, larger quantities of air can be intro- «5 Fig. 4. duced into the water. It is also possible to introduce air simultaneously into several vessels by one pump, by means of several narrow tubes, which must of course be furnished with air- tubes. In the projected railroad car for transporting fish the airing of the various transporting vessels is to be accomplished on this principle. In transporting fish any considerable distance some precautions should be observed, which I must briefly mention in conclusion. If possible, only perfectly sound fish should be transported ; these fish ought to be kept confined for some time prior to being transported ; a few days be- fore the journey is commenced no food should be given to them, so that there is no danger that the water becomes impure by the vomit or ex- crements of the fish. It is advisable, if any way possible, to change the water during the journey. This is of course easier with fresh-water than with salt-water fish, as it is nearly always possible to obtain good spring water during the journey. It is more difficult, but not impossible, to change sea water during the journey. For this purpose concentrated salt water, such as is for sale at the Berlin Aquarium, should be taken 102 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. along, and to it should be added G times its weight of pure spring water. During the journeys from Trieste to Berlin the change of the salt water has several times been made at Vienna. For transporting marine ani- mals artificial salt water is to be preferred to the natural salt water. The latter contains organic matter, especially a large number of animal- cula belonging to the copepods, infusoria, &c, which soon die and make the water turbid and impure. No such danger need be apprehended if artificial salt water is used. I therefore strongly recommend the use of artificial salt water for transporting marine animals. FISHING AND CONSUMPTION OF FISH IN 1VEVVFOUIVDLAIVD. By M. HARVEY. [From letter to Prof. S. F. Baird. ] Eegarding the local consumption of fish of course it is only possible to form an estimate, as there are no returns. I have consulted with two or three persons well acquainted with the fisheries and the habits of the people, and taking their opinions into account, and what I myself know, I should judge that the consumption of codfish here might be safely estimated at a quintal and a half per head of the population, which is now about 180,000. This would give 270,000 quintals as the local consumption of cod. As to the consumption of other kinds of fish it is so small as hardly to be worth taking into account. The salmon season lasts only six weeks, and in St. John's during that time there is a certain amount used fresh among the middle and upper classes, but the working people hardly ever use it. Where it is caught, which is only in comparatively few local- ities, a certain amount is used fresh by the catchers, who are few in number. Hardly any of it is used pickled ; all is tinned or salted and exported. Herring are not much used. The Labrador fishermen generally salt and bring home each a keg or half barrel for winter use. The whole does not amount to much, but I could give no estimate of the consump tion of either herring or salmon. Cod is the favorite food. The seal fishery of this year is one of the very worst on record, owing to the enormous masses of heavy ice and prevailing easterly winds, driving it in on shore, so that vessels could not move about. The num- ber of seals brought into St. John's was 139,222. All the returns are not in for other places, but the whole catch will not exceed 149,222. It is fortunate in one way, as it will help to save the seals longer from extermination, which on the present system is inevitable. The increased value of the export of cod in 1881, arose largely from enhanced prices caused by failure of the Norwegian fisheries. St. John's, Newfoundland, June 13, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 103 CONNECTION OF ABUNDANCE OF IVIOSS AND OF BLACK FEIES WITH ABUNDANCE OF TKOCT. [From Scientific Farmer, May, 1878.] It requires but very little imagination to connect the presence of moss growth with the pleasures and convenience of man, so close are the links of facts which join one circumstance with another. In the unsettled wooded regions we find the torment of black flies and mosquitoes, which oppress the inhabitants and render it difficult in the newly-cleared land of Maine to summer young stock. On the confines of the Arctic regions they are mentioned by voyagers as plagues of existence ; and they are a serious drawback to the comfort of the tourist who seeks in the Gulf of Bothnia to see the midnight sun. Lsestadius says that he will not affirm that they have ever devoured a living man, but that many young cattle, such as lambs and calves, have been worried out of their lives by them. All the people of Lapland declare that young birds are killed by them, which is not improbable, says our author. Wherever in Maine we find trout the most abundant, there we find the black fly, the gnat, and the mosquito in overpowering abundance ; and as the country be- comes settled these pests of man diminish and disappear ; and, as angler- sportsmen note with grief, there is a diminution of the fish, which they ascribe usually to poaching, and to the destruction brought about by the rod, the spear, or the seine ; and in cases of late years have en- deavored to check this disappearance through the hatching of ova and the restocking of the waters. These gentlemen, however commendable their intentions, have overlooked the fact that there is a relation be- tween the fish and its food ; and with the destruction of the moss of the forests the breeding ground of the food insects is taken away, and the food supply thereby diminished. In the clearing of the land and the thinning of the forests are causes at work, through the diminution of the insects which furnish the food to the trout, by the destruction of the mosses, whereby the moisture essential for the development of the insect ova is retained, which acts more disastrously on the fish than the rod or the spear. In proof of this we offer our own experience that in- sects abound in greater abundance in mossy woods than in second growth; that trout brooks which flow through mossy woods are usually more prolific of trout than neighboring brooks whose flow is through cleared land or second growth; that artificially-stocked ponds and streams in settled regions are never equal to the support of as much trout-life as like streams in the backwoods of Maine; that fishing can- not exterminate trout in the region of the black fly. Let us illustrate by an opposite fact recorded by Williams in his History of Vermont. In a pond formed by damming a small stream, to obtain water-power for a saw -mill, and covering one thousand acres of primitive forest, the 104 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. increased supply of food brought within reach of the fish multiplied them to that degree that at the head of the pond, where in the spring they crowded together in the brook which supplied it, they (trout) were taken by the hands at pleasure, and swine caught them without diffi- culty. A single sweep of a small scoop net would bring up half a bushel ; carts were filled with them as fast as if picked up on dry land. The increase in size of the trout was as remarkable as the multiplication of their numbers. We thus have indicated : Diminution of mossy woods ; diminution of insect-life, upon which the young prey almost entirely and adult fish largely feed ; diminution of fish. Could a more complete circumstantial chain of evidence be required? Thus the mosses have an importance in supporting that prolificacy of life in the streams which exist in the far North ; and the same pests which torment the Indian serve him in one remove as food; the same pests which trouble the frontiersman stock the streams with abundant life to serve him as food, and to attract the angler who employs him as a guide. As the mosses lose their supremacy the black fly disappears, the mosquito diminishes in number, and our streams dwindle in size, and even lose their flow in seasons of drought; and their capacity for supporting troufc-life is sadly diminished. In overcoming the wilder- ness man is necessitated, through the infinite correlations of nature, to destroy the natural sources of food, and through art to sustain himself, less precariously, it is true, but with greater toil, from the land. He promotes vicissitudes of climate, and changed conditions which work to him injury, in order to realize the immediate gains which he desires; but is prone to overlook the causes of his acts, as nature acts through lit- tles, which require thought to connect with their effects ; and not the least of her littles are the humble mosses which exist so abundantly where coolness and moisture are to be found. POISOIVED WATER IIY THE GULF OF MEXICO. [From the Sunland Tribune, Tampa, July 20, 1882.] We learn from Capt. William Jackson, of the steamer " Lizzie Hender- son," that on his trip from Cedar Key, Tuesday, he encountered a streak of poisoned water, covered with all varieties of dead fish, of more than a mile in extent, off Indian Pass, between Clear Water and Egmont Light. The captain says that a very offensive smell arose from it, and that a good many bottom fish, such as eels, were floating dead on the surface. We opine that this fact upsets the theory of some as to this poisoned water being fresh water from overflow on the mainland, impregnated with poisoned vegetable matter, as there are no streams of any size flowing into the Gulf near where these fish were found. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 105 LIST OF PISHES COLLECTED AT MAZATEAN, MEXICO, BY CHAKEES II GILBERT. By DAVID S. JORDAN and CHARLES II. GILBERT. During the fall and winter of ISSO-'Sl, Mr. Gilbert spent ten weeks at Mazatlan, on the west coast of Mexico, in making collections of fishes for the United States National Museum. The following is a list of the species obtained, and the numbers now borne by the specimens in the National Museum. Among the larger fishes, there is usually but a single specimen to each number, but in some cases, especially among the smaller fishes, many specimens are recorded under a single number. The popular names here given are those in use among the fishermen at Mazatlan. A very few species are included, specimens of which were examined in the field, but were not brought home. These are indicated by asterisks (*). 1. Mustelus lunulatus J. & G. (29211.) 2. Carcharias aethalorus J. & G. (28202, 29549.) 3. Carcharias fronto J. & G. (Tihuron.) (28167.) 5. Scoliodon longurio J. & G. (2830G, 28330, 28331, 29541, 29551.) 6. Galeocerdo tigrinus* J. & G. 7. Sphyrna tudes fCuv.) M. & H. (28160, 29520, 29540, 29641.) 8. Sphyrna zygaena (L.) Raf. (Cornudo.) (28134, 29645.) 9. Ginglymostoma cirratum (Ginel.) M. & H. 10. Pristis peiroteti* Miiller & Henle. 11. Rhinobatus leucorhynchus Gtlir. (Guitarro.) (28205, 28206, 29547, 29602.) 12. Urolophus asterias J. & G. MSS. (28198, 28204, 29542, 29524, 29580.) 13. Urolophus halleri Cooper. (28263, 28264.) 14. Trygon longa Garman. (Iiaia.) (28188,28203.) 15. Pteroplatea crebripunctata Peters. (28111, 28357, 28298.) 16. Stoasodon laticepa (Gill.) J. & G. (Gavelan.) (28201, 28278, 28346, 28348.) 17. Manta birostris* (Walb.) J. & G. (Manta-raia.) 18. -SJlurichthys pinnimaculatus Steind. (28192, 28347.) 19. iElurichthys panamensis Gill. (Bagre.) (28181, 28294,29174,29606.) 20. Arius brandti Steind. (Bagre Colorado.) (28230,29254.) 21. Arius platypogon Gtlir. (28215, 28259, 28262, 28286.) 22. Arius assimilis Gtlir. (28161, 28165, 28189, 28210, 28211, 28213, 28216, 28221, 28232, 28234, 28276, 28299, 28304.) 23. Arius guatemalensis Gtlir. '(28140, 28289, 28290, 29284, 29647.) 24. Clupea stolifera J. & G. (Sardina.) (28125.) 25. Clupanodon thrissa (L.) Lac. 26. Opisthopterus lutipinnis J. & G. (28126, 28209,28320, 29224.) 27. Albula vulpes (L.) Goode. 28. Elopssaurus (L.) (28148, 29544.) 29. Chanos salmoneus (Forster) C. & V. (Sabalo.) (28240, 28278, 28302, 28317, 28362, 29578.) 30. Stolephorus macrolepidotus (Kner & Steind.) J. & G. (Sardina.) 31. Stolephorus lucidus J. & G. (28121, 30884.) 32. Stolephorus ischanus J. & G. (29264.) 33. Stolephorus curtus J. &, G. (29242.) 106 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 34. Stolephorus exiguus J. & G. (28120.) 35. Stolephorus miarchua J. & G. (28119.) 36. Synodus scituliceps J. & G. (28392.) 37. Tylosurus fodiator J. & G. (Aguja.) (28162, 28190, 28323.) 38. Tylosurus sierrita J. & G. (Sierrita.) (28265, 28378, 29227, 29377, 29378, 29562, 29564.) 39. HemirhamphusunifasciatusRanz. (Pajarito.) (28178,28180,29175,29600,29607.) 40. Exoccetus californicus* Cooper. (Volador.) 41. Mureena pinta J. & G. (Anguila pinta.) (28177, 28197, 28238, 28388, 29603.) 42. Sidera dovii (Gtlir.) J. & G. (Anguila pintita.) (28311.) (Type of Murcena pintita.) 43. Sidera panamensis (Steind.) J. & G. (Anguila prieta.) (28246,29535,29591.) 44. Ophichthys triserialis (Kaup) Gtlir. (Anguila blanca.) (23130,29354.) 45. Opnichthys zophochir J. &G. (Anguila blanca.) (28277,28280,29220,29239.) 46. Pisodontophis xysturus J. & G. (28142, 28247, 29642. ) 47. Mureenesox coniceps J. & G. (Anguila blanca.) (28136, 28141, 29212.) 48. Fistularia depressa Gthr. (Corneto.) 49. Hippocampus ingens Grd. (Caballito.) 50. Atherina eriarcha J. & G. (29243.) 51. Mugil albula L. (Liza : Macho.) 52. Mugil brasiliensis Ag. (Liza.) (28175, 28332, 23338, 28372. ) 53. Chaenomugil proboscideus (Gtlir.) Gill. 54. Myxus harengus Gthr. (El Verde.) 55. Sphyrcena ensist J. & G. MSS. (Picuda. ) (28210, 28297, 28373, 29223, 29536, 29611. ) 56. Remora squalipeta (Dald.) J. & G. (Pega-pega.) (29218.) 5 7. Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitch. ) J. & G. (Sierra. ) (28112, 28222, 28296. ) 58. Caranx vinctus J. & G. ( Cocinera. ) (28343, 28365, 28366, 29553, 29597, 29649. ) 59. Caranx caballus Gthr. (Jurel.) (28363,28384,28380,29614,29616.) 60. Caranx fallax C. & V. ( Toro. ) (29200, 29437, 29550, 29557. ) 61. Caranx hippos (L.) J. & G. (Toro.) (28293, 29558, 29609, 29617.) 62. Caranx dorsalis (Gill) Gthr. (Pompano.) (28153, 28220,28241, 23288, 29233.) 63. Caranx crinitus (Akerly). (28382.) 64. Caranx speciosus Lac. (Mqjarra dorada.) (28151,29592,29625.) 65. Selene setipinnis (Mitch.) Liitk. (29216.) 66. Selene vomer (L.) Liitk. (Caballo.) (29588.) 67. Selene cerstedi Liitk. (28352.) 6a Oligoplites altus (Gthr.) Gthr. (Honda.) (28183, 28274, 28354, 28360, 29558, 29582,29589.) 69. Oligoplites occidentalis (L.) Gill. (Monda.) (28359,29208,29209,29225.) 70. Trachynotus rhodopus Gill. (Palometa.) (28110,28233,28329,28353,29633.) 71. Trachynotus fasciatus Gill. (Palometa.) (23137,28325,28326,28381,29555,29605, 29628,29786.) 72. Nematistius pectoralis Gill. (Gayo.) (28193,28194,28341,28351,28370.) 73. Centropomus robalito J. & G. (Robalito, Constantino.) (23102, 23128, 23132, 28150, 28310, 28321, 29223, 29562, 29564, 23395, 28334. ) 74. Centropomus pedimacula Poey. (Ilobalito.) (28138,28147,28149,28271,29203, 29568, 29569, 29773, 29780. ) 75. Centropomus nigrescens Gthr. (Eobalo prieto.) (28101,28156,28249,28376.) 76. Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch) Lac. (liobalo: Ilobalo palctu.) (28258,28291, 28300, 28335, 29590, 29640. ) 77. Rhypticus xanti Gill. (29234.) 78. Epinephelus quinquefasciatus (Bocourt) J. &G. (Mcrou.) (28283,28307,28318, 28358.) t Sphyrcena ensis Jor. & Gilb. spec. nov. = Sphyrcena fursteri Steindacliner, IohthyoL Beitriige, vii, 4, 1878, not Sphyrcena forsteri Cuv. & Val. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED 6TATES FISH COMMISSION. 107 79. Epinephelus sellicauda Gill. (Cabrilla.) (28104,28324.) 80. Epinephelus analogus Gill. (Cabrilla.) (28235,28256,28314,28356.) 81. Trisotropis rosaceus (Streets) J. & G. (28131.) 82. Alphestes multiguttatus (Gtbr.) J. & G. (29235.) 83. Serranus maculofasciatus Steind. (28207, 29221, 29620. ) 84. Serranus calopteryx J. & G. (28123.) 85. Lutjanus guttatus (Steiud.) J. & G. {Flamenco.) (28144,28152, 28199, 28224, 28227, 29202, 29603, 29604, 29766.) 86. Lutjanus argentivittatus (Peters) J. & G. (Pargo amarillo.) (29652, 29627, 29658, 29777, 29781, 29785, 29794.) 87. Lutjanus novemfasciatus Gill. (Pargo prieto.) (28196, 28231, 28384, 29567, 29779, 29787) (types of Lutjanus prieto). 88. Lutjanus Colorado J. & G. (Pargo Colorado.) (28261, 28305, 28383, 28386.) 89. Lutjanus aratus (Gthr.) J. & G. (Pargo raizero.) (28145, 28159, 28238, 28272, 28393,29576,29585.) 90. Hoplopagrus giintheri Gill. (Pargo.) (28115, 28164, 28367, 29581, 29531, 29629.) 91. Calamus bajonado (Bl. & Sclin.) Poey. (Mojaira garabata.) (28135, 28312, 28374, 29206, 29572, 29624, 29646.) 92. Pomadasys virginicus (L.) J. & G. (28266, 28301, 28339, 28350.) 93. Pomadasys dovii (Gtlir.) J. & G. (28251, 29533, 29626.) 94. Pomadasys interruptus (Gill) J. & G. (Mojarron.) (28169, 28170, 29593, 29637. ) 95. Pomadasys CEesius Jor. & Gilb. (28158, 28333, 29632, 29771.) 96. Pomadasys panamensis (Steind.) J. & G. (28114.) 97. Pomadasys macracanthus (Gthr.) J. &G. (Burro prieto.) (28279,29565,29548, 29635, 29638, 29639, 29764, 29796. ) 98. Pomadasys branicki (Steind. ) J. & G. (29205, 29222, 29237, 29238, 29797. ) 99. Pomadasys elongatus (Steind.) J. & G. (Burro bianco.) (29543,29559,29586.) 100. Pomadasys leuciscus (Gtlir.) J. & G. (Burro bianco.) (29227, 29539.) 101. Pomadasys nitidus (Steiud.) J. & G. (Burro bianco.) (28179,28185.) 1Q2. Pomadasys axillaris (Steind.) J. & G. (Burro bianco.) (28191,29227,29554, 29579,29594.) 103. Pomadasys chalceus (Gthr. ) J. & G. (29207, 29217, 29241. ) 104. Diabasis sexfasciatus (Gill) J. & G. (28103, 28308.) 105. Diabasis scudderi (Gill) J. & G. (Mojarra prieta.) (28242,28282,29219,29224, 29523, 29534, 29537, 29575, 29631, 29772. ) 106. Diabasis steindachneri J. & G. (28172, 29226, 29634, 29759, 29778, 29795. ) 107. Diabasis flaviguttatus (Gill) J. & G. (28173,28212,29758,29767,29770,29776, 29791.) 108. Pimelepterus analogus Gill. (Clwpa.) (28168,28174,29583,29622.) 109. Cynoscion xanthulum J. & G. (Corbina.) (28109.) 110. Cynoscion reticulatum (Gthr. ) J. & G. ( Corbina. ) (28250, 28327, 28303, 29236. ) 111. Larimus breviceps C. & V. (Ckivi. ) (28285, 28309, 28313, 29230.) 112. Scieena icistia J. & G. (Cm-bineta.) (28182, 28275, 28228, 28368, 29613, 29566, 29615,29775,29790.) 113. Sciaena vermicularis (Gthr. ) J. & G. ( Corbineta. ) (28385, 29229, 29638. ) 114. Micropogon ectenes J. & G. ( Corbina, ) (28295, 28361, 28336, 29538. ) 115. Umbrina xanti Gill. ( Codomiz. ) (29419, 29430, 29636. ) 116. Umbrina dorsalis Gill. (Codorniz.) (28105.) 117. Menticirrus elongatus (Gthr.) J. & G. (Caiman.) (28146, 28155, 28315.) 118. Menticirrrus panamensis (Steiud.) J. & G. (Caiman.) (28107.) 119. Menticirrus nasus (Gthr. ) J. & G. ( Caiman. ) (28176, 28287, 28292, 29584. ) 120. Upeneus grandisquamis Gill. (Chivito.) 121. Polynemus approximans Lay & Bennett. (Baton.) (28184,28344,29552.) 122. Polynemus operculars (Gill) Gthr. (Baton.) (28219,28389.) 108 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 123. Cirrhites rivulatus VaL 124. Holocentrum suborbitale Gill. (30880.) 125. Gerres gracilis (Gill) J. & G. (Mojarra cantilena.) (29788.) 126. Gerres californiensis (Gill) J. & G. (Mojarra cantilena.) (28106.) 127. Gerres cinereus (Walb.) J. & G. (Mojarra Manca.) (28217,29215.) 128. Gerres peruvianus C. & V. (Mojarra china. ) (28108, 29232, 29532, 29595, 29598, 29774,29784.) 129. Gerres lineatus (Humboldt) C. & V. (Mojqrra china.) (28281,29209,29214.) 130. Julis lucasanus GilL 131. Pseudojulis notospilus Gthr. 132. Platyglossus dispilus Gtlir. 133. Scarus perrico J. & G. (Perrico: Loro.) (28328.) 134. Pomacentrus rectifrasnum GilL (Pescada asul.) 135. Pomacentrus flavilatus GilL 136. Glyphidodon saxatilis (Bloch) Lac 137. Glyphidodon declivifrous (Gill) Gthr. (28186, 29204, 29643.) 138. Pomacanthus zonipectus (Gill) Gthr. (Muneca.) (28139.) (Type of Poma- canthus crescentalis J. & G.) 139. Chaetodon huraeralis Gthr. (Muneca.) (29596,29012,29618.) 140. Chaetodipterus faber (Brouss.) J. & G. (29570, 29601, 29610.) 14L Acanthurus tractus Poey. (Barbero*: Cirujano.) (28116.) 142. Gobius soporator C. & V. 143. Gobius sagittula (Gthr.) J. & G. 144. Gobiosoma zosterurum J. & G. (29245.) 145. Dormitator maculatus (Bloch) J. & G. (28163, 38394.) 146. CuliuB aequidens J. & G. (28268, 29240.) 147. Scorpaena plumieri Bloch. (28154, 28226, 28236, 29621.) 148. Gobiesox adustus J. & G. (29249.) 149. Gobiesox zebra J. & G. (29250.) 150. Gobiesox erythrops J. & G. (29248, 30885.) 151. Gobiesox eos J. & G. (29247, 30889.) 152. Isesthes brevipinnis (Gthr.) J. & G. 153. Salarias atlanticus C. & V. (29231.) 154. Salarias chiostictus J. & G. (28117.) 155. Tripterygium carminale J. & G. (28118.) 156. Clinus zonifer J. & G. (28122.) 157. Clinus xanti (Gill) Gthr. (28349, 29648, 29650, 29789.) 158. Cremnobates integripinnis Rosa Smith. 159. Fieraafer arenicola J. &, G. (29244.) 160. Dinematichthys veutralis (Gill) J. & G. 161. Paralichthys adspersus (Steind.) J. & G. (Lenguado) (28319, 29577, 29619.) 162. Citharichthys panamensis Steind. (Lenguado) (28208, 28187, ^9573, 29545, 29573, 29587, 29623, 29630, 29798.) 163. Citharichthys spilopterus Gthr. (Lenguado.) (28210,28243,28342,29225.) 164. Hemi rhombus ovalis Gthr. 165. Etropus crossotus J. &. G. (28124.) 166. Achirus mazatlanus (Steind.) J. &G. (Tcipaleate.) (28106,28171,28248,28316, 28379,29574.) 167. Malthe elater J. & G. (28127.) 168. Balistes mitis Benn. (Pes puerco.) (29176, 29201.) 169. Balistes polylepis Steind. (Pes puerco.) (28157, 28337, 29530, 29560, 29561.) 170. Tetrodon politus Ayres. (Pateta.) (28195,28200,29563,29599.) 171. Diodon hystrix L. (Puerc'espino.) (28267.) 172. Mola rotunda* Cuv. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 109 LIST OF I ISI1BN COLLECTED AT PANAMA BY CHARLES II GILBERT, By DAVID S. JORDAN and CHARLES II. GILBERT. The greater part of the months of February and March, 1881, were spent by Mr. Gilbert, at Panama, in making collections of fishes for the United States National Museum. The following is a list of the species observed, with numbers now borne by the specimens on the register of the museum. Many of the smaller fishes have not yet been entered on the register. 1. Mustelus dorsalis Gill. (29497.) 2. Carcharias eethalorus J. & G. 3. Sphyrnazygcena(L.)Kaf. (29289.) 4. Urolophus aaterias J. & G. MSS. (29318.) 5. Urolophus aspidurus J. & G. (29307, 29410, 29454.) 6. .Silurichthys panamensis Gill. 7. iElurichthys pinnimaculatus Steind. (29447, 29456, 31016.) 8. Arius "brandti Steind. (29262.) 9. Arius kessleri Steind. (29252, 29413.) 10. Arius planlceps Steind. (29417, 29500.) 11. Arius platypogon Gthr. (29257.) 12. Arius insculptus J. & G. (29415.) 13. Arius elatturus J. & G. (29408.) 14. Arius osculus J. & G. (29476.) 15. Arius assimilis Gthr. 16. Arius dovii (Gill) Gthr. (29529.) 17. Arius dasycephalus Gthr. (29400,29478.) 18. Arius hypophthalmus Steind. (29436, 29508.) 19. Clupanodon thrissa (L.) Lac. (29428, 29458, 29509.) 20. Pellona panamensis Steind. (29303, 29334, 29168. ) • 21. Pellona fiirthi Steind. (29505.) 22. Albula vulpes (L.) Goode. 23. Elops saurus (L.). 24. Stolephorus panamensis (Steind.) J. & G. (29178, 29396.) 24 (&). Stolephorus macrolepidotus (Kner & Steind.) J. & G. 25. Synodus scituliceps J. & G. (29449.) 26. Pcecilia elongata Gthr. (29166, 29172.) 27. Tylosurus scapularis J. & G. (29427, 29435, 29438.) 28. Tylosurus pacificus (Steind.) J. & G. (29297, 29300.) 29. Hemirhamphus brasiliensis (L.) C. & V. (29448.) 30. Exoccetus calopterus Gthr. (29517, 29521.) 31. Myrophia punctatus Liltken. 32. Muraenesox coniceps J. & G. (29288, 29346, 29450.) 33. Ophichthys triserialis (Kanp) Gthr. 34. Fistularia depressa Gthr. (29325.) 35. Myxus harengus Gthr. 36. Chcenomugil proboscideus (Gthr.) Gill. (29263.) 37. Mugil brasiliensis Ag. (29251,29525.) 38 Mugil incilis Hancock. (29414.) 39 Sphyraena ensis J. & G. (29333.) 110 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 40. Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitch.) J. & G. 41. Oligoplites altus (Gthr.) J. & G. 42. Oligoplites occidentalis (L.) Gill. 43. Chloroscombus chrysurus (L.) Gill. (29165, 29278, 29285, 29343.) 44. Selene vomer (L.) Liitken. (29412, 29426.) 45. Selene setipinnis (Mitch.) Liitk. (29162.) 46. Caranx dorsalis (Gill) Gthr. 47. Caranx speciosus Lac. 48. Caranx hippos (L.) J. & G. (29280.) 49. Caranx fallax C. & V. (29279, 29342.) 50. Caranx caballus Gthr. 51. Caranx atrimanus J. & G. (29341.) 52. Caranx crumenophthalmus (Bloch.) Lac. (29431.) 53. Centropomus unionensis Boc. (29457, 29492, 29327, 29485.) 54. Centropomus armatus Gill. (29161, 29308, 29435, 29512, 29514, 29527.) 54 (b). Centropomus robalito J. & G. (29391, 29471.) 55. Centropomus pedimacula Poey. 56. Centropomus nigrescens Gthr. 57. Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch) Lac. 58. Rhypticus nigripinnis Gill. (29277, 29283, 29421.) 59. Alphestes multiguttatus (Gthr.) J. & G. (29291, 29510, 29519.) 60. Epinephelus analogus Gill. (29284, 29301.) 61. Epinephelus quinquefasciatus (Bocourt) J. & G. 62. Hypoplectrus lamprurus J. & G. (29651.) 63. Diplectrum radiale (Quoy & Gairn.) Streets. (29163, 29302, 29347.) 64. Xenichthys xanti Gill. (29173 [18 specimens: types of Xenichthys xenons J. & G.], 29513.) 65. Lutjanus guttatus (Steind.) J. & G. (29434.) 66. Lutjanus argentivittatus (Peters) J. & G. 67. Lutjanus novemfasciatus Gill. 68. Lutjanus aratus (Gthr.) J. & G. (29329.) 69. Pomadasys virginicus (L.) J. & G. 70. Pomadasys dovii (Gthr.) J. & G. (29308.) 71. Pomadasys interruptus (Gill) J. & G. 72. Pomadasys pacifici (Gthr.) J. & G. (29473, 29337, 29445, 29451, 29453.) 73. Pomadasys panamensis (Steind.) J. & G. (29320, 29344.) 74. Pomadasys branicki (Steind.) J. & G. (29441.) 75. Pomadasys macracanthus (Gthr.) J. & G. 76. Pomadasys elongatus (Steind.) J. & G. 77. Pomadasys leuciscus (Gthr.) J. & G. (29332.) 78. Pomadasys nitidus (Steind.) J. & G. (29483, 29405, 29331, 29397.) 79. Pomadasys chalceus (Gthr.) J. & G. (29345, 29265.) 80. Diabasis sexfasciatus (Gill) J. & G. (29452.) 81. Diabasis scudderi (Gill) J. & G. (29282, 29270, 29516.) 82. Diabasis flaviguttatus (Gill) J. & G. (29295.) 83. Diabasis steindachneri J. & G. (29305, 29387.) 84. Diabasis macukcauda (Gill) J. & G. (29256, 29274, 29350.) 85. Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch) Cuv. (29799.) 86. Pimelepterus analogus Gill. 87. Pimelepterus ocyurus J. & G. (29395, 39397, 29725.) 83. Cynoscion reticulatum (Gthr.) J. & G. (29290, 29467.) 89. Cynoscion album (Gthr.) J. & G. (29292, 29522.) 90. CynoBcion stolzmanni (Steind.) J. & G. (28143, 29293, 29723.) 91. Cynoscion phoxocephalum J. & G. (29296, 29339, 28389, 29724. ) 92. Larimus argenteus (Gill) J. & G. (29287, 29314, 29330, 29491.) 93. Larimus breviceps C. & V. (29317, 29322, 29323. ) BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Ill 94. Ancylodon jaculidens C. & V. (29294, 29722.) 95. Isopisthus remifer J. & G. (29169, 29312, 29324, 2933G, 29429. ) 96. Nebris microps C. & V. (29170, 292G0, 29335, 29721.) 97. Odontoscion archidium J. & G. (29266, 29480, 29518.) 98. Scieena ensifera J. & G. (29316, 29442, 29464, 29526.) 99. Scieena armata (Gill) J. & G. (29461, 29465.) 100. Sciasna chrysoleuca (Gthr.) J. & G. (29793.) 101. Scieena verniicularis (Gtlir. ) J. & G. (29337, 29499, 29490, 29269, 29275. ) 102. Scieena imiceps J. & G. (29432, 29481, 29489.) 103. Scieena ophioscion (Gthr. ) J. & G. (29171, 29546, 29493, 29398, 29399, 29321. ) 104. Scieena fiirthi (Steind.) J. &. G. (29392.) 105. Sciasna ericymba J. & G. (29338, 29433, 29466, 29477, 29479, 29494. ) 106. Scieena oscitans J. & G. (29258, 29299, 29319, 29326. ) 107. Genyonemus fasciatus Steind. (29164, 29268, 29311, 29313, 29315, 29455, 29498.) 108. Micropogon altipinnis Gthr. (29348,29462.) 109. Umbrina xanti Gill. (29419.) 110. Menticirrus panamensis (Steind.) J. & G. (29259,29446.) 111. Menticirrus nasus (Gthr.) J. & G. (29159,29406.) 112. Apogon dovii Gthr. 113= Upeneus grandisquamis Gill. (29160, 29511.) 114. Polynemus opercularis (Gill) Gthr. (29328,29420.) 115. Polynemus approximans Lay & Bennett. 116. Holocentrum suborbitale Gill. 117. Acanthurus tractus Poey. (29286.) 118. Cheetodipterus faber (Brouss.) J. & G. (29276.) 119. Cheetodon humeralis Gthr. (29179, 29273, 29482, 29501, 29504.) 120. Pomacanthus zonipectus (Gill) Gthr. 121. Genres gracilis (Gill) J. & G. (29390, 29571.) 122. Gerres dovii (Gill) Gthr. (29281,29495.) 123. Gerres aureolus J. & G. (29487.) 124. Gerres peruvianus C. & V. (29459, 29460, 29469.) 125. Glyphidodon saxatilis (Bloch) Lao. 126. Pseudojulis notospilus Gthr. 127. Scams perrico J. & G. 128. Scorpeena plumieri Bloch. (29298,29394.) 129. Batrachoides pacifici (Gthr. ) GilL (29267, 29306, 29349, 29475.) 130. Gobius soporator C. & V. 131. Gobius sagittula (Gthr.) J. & G. 132. Gobius paradoxus Gthr. 133. Gobius seminudus Gthr. 134. Lepidogobius emblematicus J. & G. 135. Isesthes striatus (Steind.) J. & G. 136. Cremnobates monophthalmus Gthr. 137. Dinematichthys ventralis (Gill) J. &. G. 138. Cerdale ionthas J. & G. (29664.) 139. Microdesmus retropinnis J. & G. (29665.) 140. Paralichthys adspersus (Steind.) J. & G. (29264,29309.) 141. Citharichthys spilopterus Gthr. (29271,29340,29507.) 142. Citharichthys panamensis Steind. (29272,29264,29304,29411.) 143. Hemirhombus ovaHs Gthr. (29422.) 144. Hemirhombus latifrons J. & G. (29255, 29416, 29425, 29496. ) 145. Etropus crossotus J. & G. (29177.) 146. Aphoristia elongata (Gthr.) J. & G. (29418, 29424.) 147. Balistes polylepis Steind. (29261.) 148. Tetrodon testudineus L. (29409.) Indiana University, August 1, 1882. 112 BULLETIN 'OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. LIST OF FISHES OBSERVED AT PUMTA ARENAS, ON THE PACIFIC COAST OF CENTRAL. AMERICA. By CHARLES H. GILBERT. During a stay of a few hours in the port of Punta Arenas, on the west coast of Central America, the following species of fishes were ob- served : 1. Galeocerdo tigrinus M. & H. (29515; from Sail Jose.) 2. iElurichthys panamensi3 Gill. ("29310; from Libertad.) 3. Ariua brandti Steind. (Bagre Colorado.) 4. PeUona panamensia Steind. (29107,29393.) 5. Mugil brasiliensis Agass. (Liza.) 6. Centropomus nigrescens Gthr. (Robalo.) 7. Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch) Lac. 8. Centropomus pedimacula Poey. 9. Epinephelus quinquefasciatus (Boc.) J. & G. (Merou.) 10. Lutjanus Colorado J. &. G. (Pargo Colorado.) 11. Lutjanus novemfasciatus Gill. (Pargo prieto.) 12. Lutjanus aratus (Gthr.) J. & G. 13. Pomadasys macracanthus (Gthr.) J. & G. (Eoncador.) 14. Pomadasys leuciscus (Gthr.) J. & G. 15. Hoplopagrus giintheri Gill. 16. Lobotes surinamensls (Bloch) Cnv. 17. Scieena ensifera J. & G. (29506.) 18. Sciaena armata (Gill) J. & G. (29253, 29367.) 19. Scieena vermicularls (Gthr.) J. & G. 20. Larimus breviceps C. & V. 21. TJmbrina sranti Gill. 22. Polynemus approximans Lay & Bennett. 23. Gerres peruvianus C. & V. 24. Citharichthys panamensia Steind. SECOND ANNCAE APPEARANCE OF TOUNG COD HATCHED KYTIIK UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION IN CSEOI/CESTER HARBOR IN THE WINTER OF 1S79-S0. By E. H. HASKELL. [Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] You will be pleased to hear that the results of your attempts to propa- gate cod on our coasts are very gratifying. My own boy, fishing from one of the wharves in the inner harbor, a few days ago, caught thirteen as handsome specimens of young cod as have ever been landed, vary- ing from 10 to 14 inches; and this right in the harbor. I understand they are very plenty, and growing fast. If something could be done to induce those who fish to let them grow, it would be better; but they are so plenty that I suppose it would be difficult. I shall be glad to look into this matter further for you, and will advi.se you. Boston, Mass., June 30, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 113 SUCCESSFUL PROPAGATION OF BLACK BASS. By MAJOR ISAAC ARJ\OJLI> Jr., U. S. A. [From letters to Prof. S. P. Baird.] I have in a small pond at this arsenal about 40 black bass (large and small mouthed), that are weighing from 2 to 4 pounds apiece. I have bad them in this pond for three years. Last year they produced a large number of small fry, nearly all of which were destroyed by sun- perch. I have had the pond cleaned this spring and the sun-perch re- moved. As the bass are in fine condition, I expect there will be thou- sands of the young fry this season. Indianapolis Arsenal, Indianapolis, Ind., April 22, 1882. This morning I discovered the fish were nesting. They have refused food for the past week, indicating they have been on the nest during that time. I have removed all the sun-perch from the ponds, so there will be no danger to the small fry from that source. My pond is fed with water from the city water- works, and is taken from White River. I have an overflow. All the bass, with one exception, appear healthy. Indianapolis, Ind., May 16, 1882. The black bass are hatching out very fast. I have partitioned off one end of the pond, so as to protect the small fry from the large fish; have some trouble in catching the small fry as they come off the nests, but should think there are 25,000 or more in the part of the pond partitioned off. We are putting in more as fast as they are caught. Indianapolis, Ind., June 2, 1882. The black bass hatched out by the thousand, and I think there will be more in a few days. The young fish are all healthy, but they eat each other. Yesterday my foreman, in less than fifteen minutes, saw nine of the young fry swallowed by fish of apparently the same size. The large- mouths seem to do the greater part of this work. I have stopped trans- ferring the small fry into an inclosed space, thinking they will do better in the large pond. I have about 400 fish that are one year old, in fine condition, and believe, if you can remove them, the final result will be more satisfactory. They are from 3 to G inches in length, all strong and hardy. Each day the number of this year's small fry grows less, as the strong ones destroy the weaker. The first hatching are now nearly three-fourths of an inch in length, and can probably protect themselves. Indianapolis, Ind., June 16, 1882. I think I must have had, one week ago, at least 100,000 young fry, and there were four or five large fish on the nests whose eggs had not hatched. This morning I discovered the inclosed place at one end of Bull. IT. S. F. C, 82 8 ]Vov. 4, 1 882. 114 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the pond was nearly destitute of small fry, but I found a great many in the large pond, the exact number of which would be hard to deter- mine, but should think I saw several thousand. I made one haul with a minnow-net and transferred probably a thousand or more to the in- closed space. At one end of the inclosed space I have dug a shallow ditch some 10 feet long and 2 feet wide, in which the water stands about 10 inches deep; have covered the bottom of this ditch with sand and gravel ; it forms the outlet for the surplus water, and is provided with a wire screen to prevent the escape of the young fry. I am in hopes the running water will prove to be beneficial to the young fry; they like it, and are constantly going in and out. I do not find many dead fish or notice any that appear sick. They have all increased in size wonderfully, and today I have not noticed any cannibalism; think they are getting large and strong enough to protect themselves. I am try- ing to protect the fry in the large pond from the old fish by making brush protection along the shores of the pond, and keep the old ones well supplied with food, which they usually take very freely, but have not taken at all for the past week. The upshot of the whole is that I am in hopes there will be enough of the young fry left to pay you for the trouble of taking them away, but every day makes it more uncer- tain; there will be no danger of losing any of the year-old bass, and I would advise the whole lot be removed as soon as possible. Al- though there are to-day several thousand young fry in the pond, I do not believe there is the tenth part of what there was two weeks ago, and 1 am afraid of making any experiments for their protection, as they might not be successful. 1 should think 1,500 to 2,000 young fry have disappeared from the inclosed space since the afternoon of the 21th. There is a mystery in the loss, always occurring during the night, that still remains unexplained. There are still quite a large number of young fish in the main poud. Indianapolis, Ind., June 23, 1882. I made small openings through the partition in my ponds this morning, large enough to allow the free passage of the small fry from one part of the pond to the other — too small for the mature fish to pass through. In less than half an hour several thousand of the young fry had collected near the outlet of the pond and were trying to find a passage through the screens. After watching the fry for a couple of hours, it occurred to me they might bruise themselves by rubbing against the wires, and I had a wooden trough made, with a wire screen about 12 by 12 inches, fastened across an opening in the bottom near one end so that the water passing out of the pond goes through the screen in a vertical instead of a horizontal direction. The trough is nailed to four posts, driven into the bottom of the pond, and is placed so as to have about 3 inches of water covering the screen at all times. It effectively pre- vents the wedging and jamming of the young fry. They have already learned the road backward and forward through the partition. I notice BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 115 the young fry have an invariable tendency to follow the outward current, and do not collect at the inlet of the pond. If you have room, in con- structing your ponds, to have an overflow from the breeding-pond to a smaller one, all the young fry will naturally collect in the smaller pond without handling, and thus save considerable trouble. Indianapolis, Ind., June 29, 1882. It is usually the case that thousands of small black bass are taken with hook and hue near here in the fall of the year. I think they are fish two years old, and shall give instructions to one of my corporals to catch all he can and put in my ponds; besides, if the streams get very low, as they usually do in the summer months, they may be able to get quite a large number of small fry with the minnow-net. It would do your eyes good to see the yearlings feed upon small minnows and angleworms. They are great pets, and afford me much pleasure. Indianapolis, Ind., June 30, 1882. I placed the bass in the pond for the sole purpose of noticing them during the breeding season, but the water in the pond was so crowded with a growth of algae that my observations have not been satisfactory. I think the female prepares the spawning ground or bed, after which the male joins her. Whilst the female is preparing the bed the males fight with each other for possession. (The fish alluded to in my letter of May 15 died from effects of injury received in a free fight; he was injured about the head, and in a few days was covered with a white fungus, which proved fatal.) The male presses the roe from the female by a series of bites or pressures along her belly with his mouth, the female lying upon her side during the operation. The" male ejects the milt upon or over the roe from time to time, and the spawning process lasts for two or three days.* When the spawning is over the male dis- appears from the scene, and the female remains upon the nest extremely pugnacious, allowing nothing to approach until the eggs have hatched and the young fry are a week or ten days old. The young fish com- mence at once to prey upon each other and continue until they are two or three weeks old, when cannibalism ceases and there is no more danger from that source. The shallow ditch was a good arrangement; by cov- ering the ditch with a layer of brush the young fry were well protected from all kinds of birds. I think frogs destroy a great many young fish, and should always be destroyed as far as possible. I am satisfied that with the final arrangement adopted, that of having one end of the pond partitioned off, with openings so that the small fry can pass freely back and forth, and with the trough-screen for overflow, better results can be reasonably expected. If I remain at the arsenal I intend to repeat the experiment. Haddam, Conn., September 21, 1882. *I first advanced this idea in Forest and Stream, in an article signed "Gringo," and afterwards saw a confirmation of the same by Mr. Geo. C. Kixford, of Rixford, Fla. 116 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. REMOVAL, OF BASS FROM INDIANA TO NORTH CAROLINA BY THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. By CHAS. W. SMILEY. Although the Fish Commission has not undertaken to propagate game fisb, nor to stock streams with predaceous fishes, it is, neverthe- less, constantly receiving applications for bass and for information upon the subject. Upon the receipt of the very courteous offer of Maj. Isaac Arnold, U. S. A., to donate the fish alluded to in the preceding article, Professor Baird directed that a messenger be sent for them. Accord- ingly Mr. Ellis left Washington July 5, reaching Indianapolis on the 7th. In the absence of Major Arnold, Captain Rexford arranged to have a seine drawn, so that at 3 j>. m. on Saturday, the 8th, Mr. Ellis started away with 5,000 small bass in five 15-gallon cans, and 300 year- lings and a few two-year-old bass in five other cans of the same capacity. About half the lot were black bass and the other half green bass. This did not exhaust Major Arnold's supply of bass, for, as the messenger reported, "there appeared to be a plenty left in the ponds.'' After a wagon-ride of two miles, the train was reached at 4.30 p. m. ice was procured, and, the weather being very warm, plenty of fresh water was required. Mr. Ellis reached Washington Sunday, July 9, at 9 p. m., and upon transferring the fish to the tanks of the Central hatch- ing btation, found that but 6 large and 30 small fish had died in transit. After remaining at the hatching station in Washington a few days, during which time a considerable number of the fry made their way through the wire screens and were devoured by the older bass, the lot was forwarded in charge of the same messenger to Mr. W. J. Green, of Fayetteville, N. C, who, on the 17th of July, wrote, "The consignment of bass arrived in remarkably good condition on the 15th; I do not think there were over half a dozen dead ones in the whole lot. I divided them among three of my ponds well adapted for their propagation and development." There are still eight or ten applications on file in this office for black bass, but the Commission is not able to enter upon this field of fish culture at present. The experience in bass propagation by Major Arnold, and the transfer from Indiana to North Carolina, are placed on record as an encouragement to private or State enterprise. CT. S. Fish Commission, Washington, D. C, October 10, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 117 THE SCOTCH nERKIIVG FISHERIES IN 1882.* [From Fiakeri Tidendc, No. 1, January, 1882.] As the annual yield of the Seotch fisheries is not published till some months after the close of the year in question, a few data respecting last year's fisheries, gathered from the most reliable sources, may prove of interest. The weather, all during the fishing season, was unusually changeable, and the loss of life and apparatus was above the average. Whenever the weather permitted the boats to approach the fishing- stations, the fisheries, with hardly an exception, proved successful, and large quantities of herring were caught at the fishing-stations nearest the coast, where for a number of years but few fish had been caught. As a general rule the quality of last year's herring was very good, and, as they were salted under very favorable circumstances, thesalters did a very good business and could prepare a superior article. The number of barrels bearing the government mark was, in proportion to to the number of fish caught, much larger than in 1880, as they amounted to 500,000 out of a total catch of 643,000 crans, whilst last year they numbered 6S9,28G out of a total catch of 835,807 crans. The following table shows the number of boats engaged in the fish- eries and the number of crans caught on the east coast of Scotland, from Berwick to the Shetland Islands, during the last ten years : Tear. Boats. Crans. 1871 4,557 4,369 4,081 4.153 4,092 4,034 4,087 4,144 4,267 4,486 4,579 516 722 1872 524 737 1873 641 277 1874 663, 864 615 706 1875 1876 393 740 1877 487 199 1878 567 927 1879 456, 406 835, 807 634, 000 1880 1881 The average catch per boat this year was, therefore, 138 crans against 186 in 1880, and 107 in 1879. The earnings of the fishermen may be estimated at £650,000, the value of their boats at £450,000, and of their nets about £500,000. The number of fishermen exceeded 28,000, whilst the number of persons engaged in preparing fish, or in some other way employed in this great national industry, far exceeds that number. A peculiar phenomenon is the constant decrease in the number of her- ring exported to Ireland from the east coast of Scotland. Not many years ago Ireland was the principal market for Scotch herring, but dur- * Bet Skotske Sildefiske i 1881.— Translated from the Danish by Herman Jacobson. 118 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ing the last few years only a few ship-loads of herring from the north. era stations have gone to Ireland, whilst by far larger numbers are exported to Germany. Even the Eyemouth district, which in former years found a ready maiket for its fish in England, has, in 1881, exported a very considerable quantity of herring to Germany, whilst Aberdeen- shire and Moray Firth send all their prepared herring to the Continent. LIST OF FOOD-FISHES BROUGHT FKOM KEY WEST, FLA., INTO THE MARKETS OF HAVANA. By FELIPE POET. [The following is a translation of a portion of a letter received from Professor Poey, in response to a request from me for information as to the species of fishes sent by Key West fishermen to the Havana mar- ket. — D. S. Jordan.] I have received from an old fisherman (now dealing in fishes in the Havana market) the following list of fishes which are received in Ha- vana from Key West, either living or preserved in ice : 1. Cherna = Epineplielus morio (0. & V.). 2. Pargo guachinango = Lutjanus campechianus Poey. 3. Pez perro = Laclinolaimus suillus C. & V. 4. Aguaji. The name of Aguaji is given to two species, both of which grow to a large size, viz: Trisotropis brunneus Poey and Trisotropis aguaji Poey. The species here meant I believe to be the former. 5. Jallao = Hocmulon album C. & Y. G. Bajonado = Calamus bajonado (Bloch). 7. Kabirruba = Ocyurus chrysurus (Bloch). 8. Biajaiba = Lutjanus synagris L. (uninotatus 0. & V.) 9. Caballerote = Lutjanus cabellerote Poey (vide Poey, Enumeratio, in Anal. Soc. Esp. de Hist, Nat. IV, 100). 10. Cabrilla. The name of Cabra (Cabra mora) is given to Epineplie- lus punctatus Bloch (Syn. maculatus, atlanticus, nigriculus,pixanga, impetiginosus : vide Poey Anal. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat. IV, 91). There is also a Cabrilla (diminutive of Cabra), Epineplielus lunu- latus (Syn. catus Val). I do not know which of these two may be meant. 11. Sierra = Cybium caballa C. & V. 12. Sargo. There are several Sargos. I believe that the one here in* tended is Sargus caribaius Poey. Besides these, I have myself observed the following : 13. Promicrops guasa Poey. 14. Trisotropis falcatus Poey. 15. Trisotropis petrosus Poey. Havana, Cuba, March 9, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 119 DREDGING STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH < (MI MISSION STEAITIEK FISH HAWK, LIEUT. Z. E. TANNER C'OiWTIANDINC;, FOB 1880, 1881, AND 188*, WITH TEMPERATURE AND OTHER OBSERVA- TIONS. Arranged for publication By RICHARD RATHBUN. In the summer of 1880, the headquarters of the United States Fish Commission were established at Newport, E. I., and the steamer Fish Hawk, then newly constructed, made its dredging and trawling trips from there, whenever the weather permitted. The field of explorations for the summer included Narragansett Bay, Sakonnet Eiver, and the regions to the northward, eastward, and southward of Block Island. In September and the first part of October, three trips were made by the Fish Hawk to the inner edge of the Gulf Stream slope, between lati- tudes 40° 05' 42" N. and 39° 46' K, and longitudes 70° 22' 06" W. and 71° 10' W., in depths of 64 to 487 fathoms, resulting in the discovery of a new and exceedingly rich fauna, both as regards fish and marine invertebrates. On her passage to Washington in November, the Fish Hawk also trawled off the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, in depths of 18 to 300 fathoms. During the summers of 1881 and 1882, the headquarters of the Com- mission were at Wood's Holl, Mass. As the shallow waters of this region had been quite fully explored by the Commission in 1871 and 1875, very little time was expended in work near land; but advantage was taken of all pleasant weather to still further investigate the rich fauna! region of the Gulf Stream slope, discovered the previous year. Seven trips were made to this region, in 1881, between latitudes 39° 40' N. and 40° 22' IT., and longitudes 69° 15' W. and 71° 32' W., in depths of 43 to 7S2 fathoms. A line of dredgings and trawlings, at intervals of about four miles, was made from off Nomau's Land to the Gulf Stream slope, in order to connect the inshore with the offshore stations; and a few trips were also made in Vineyard Sound, Buzzard's Bay, and off Chatham, Cape Cod, on, and in the vicinity of, Crab Ledge. Cod trawl-lines were set on most of the outside trips, for the purpose of catching fish that would not enter the beam-trawl. In 1882, five deep-water trips, were made to the same region, extending the area of dredgings considerably beyond its former eastern and western limits. A few hauls of the dredge and beam-trawl were taken in Vineyard Sound, and one trip was made to the one-hundred fathom line, off the eastern side of Cape Cod. The most eastern haul on the Gulf Stream slope for 1882, was in latitude 40° 08' N. and longitude 68° 45' W.; and the most western in latitude 39° 31' N. and longitude 72° 08' W.; the deepest haul was in 787 fathoms. Cod-trawls were set on two of the trips only. 120 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The temperatures of the air were taken, in part, with a Jas. Green, in part with a Signal Service, thermometer; the temperatures of the bottom and surface waters were obtained by means of Negretti and Zambra deep- sea thermometers. The bearings are all magnetic. As the bearings and latitudes and longitudes indicate only the points at which the dredge or trawl was lowered upon the bottom, the direction of the drift of the vessel and the distance gone over in dredging and trawling have been given in most cases, to show the extent of the hauls. The figures in the column of "Drift" indicate the distance of the drift in miles. The abbre- viations in the column of "Apparatus used" have the following significa- tions: D., dredge; E. D., rake-dredge; O. D., oyster- dredge; T., trawl; O. T., otter-trawl; B. T., Blake-trawl; Tan., tangles; C. T., cod-trawl. The New York fishing schooner, Josie Beeves, Capt. F. M. Bedmond employed by the Fish Commission to look for the tile fish (Lopholatilus chameleonticeps) in the neighborhood of the one-hundred fathom line, south of Martha's Vineyard, made five stations in that region, which for convenience sake have been given numbers in the regular series from 1145 to 1149, inclusive. 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SCARCITY' OF REACKFISH— MORTALITY OF CODFISH. By CIIAS. C. LESLIE. [From letter to G. Brown Goode.] For the past four or five years we have noticed the scarcity of black- fish in the summer, and especially this summer. The smacks here have not made their expenses for the past two months. I have just seen Capt. S. M. Corker, one of our expert blackfish fishermen, who has been in the business lor thirty years. He tells me that he has never seen them so scarce as they are at present, and that in former years the fishermen were accustomed to catch enough to pay expenses during the summer. Captain Corker also tells me that about June 1 a vessel came into this port, and, according- to the statement of her captain, she sailed through acres of codfish, floating belly up, between Hatteras and Cape Henry. The fish were not dead, but very weak. Charleston, S. C, June 29, 1882. SIIAD FISHING OIV THE SAI1VT JOHN'S RIVER. By JOHN IB. OSBOK1V. [From a letter to Prof. S. F. Balrd. ] The past winter was very poor; the river was quite low and every- thing favorable for a good run of shad. I fished from January 12 until February 25. This is my sixth and last winter on the Saint John's. Our average catch nightly was 13 during January; during February it was 20. We had a good many northeast winds and many very cold nights, both of which stopped shad from running. Several fishermen on the lower river have quit the business. Messrs. Melton & Tote, the largest fishery near Jacksonville, running 30 nets, did not pay expenses. Shad sold in Palatka and Jacksonville for 50 cents apiece. We sold a 1 we could catch at Sanford and Orange City. Could have sold ten times as many if we could have caught them, in the winter of 1876 1 caught, on an average, 200 shad per night, with a 300-foot uet,20 meshes, 2^ inch mesh, rigged 3 meshes to a 5-inch span. Shad have gradually decreased since, and last winter I fished a 400-foot net, 25 meshes deep, 2.', inch mesh, rigged to 3 meshes on a 4-inch span. M\ net was rigged to catch fish and she did catch them, except shad, from a 5-inch herring up to 40 pound cattish and gars. Soeeento, FLA., Jvne 5, L882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 133 REPORT OF A IV EXPI^OR0IV«- HKIP OF TBttCC STKAWEB FUSM HAWK niV CHESAPEAKE BAY BIV THE EABLI NF-KIIiVC- OF 18S9. By Lieut. SZ. IL. TANTCEE5, U. S. W. • We left the navy-yard at 12.50 p. m., Saturday, and arrived at Point Lookout at 10.45 p. in., where we anchored for the night. At 12.30 p. m., before leaving Washington, we received 1,000,000 eod eggs in artificial sea water: about 75 per cent, of them seemed to be alive. Upon our arrival here they were put in three cones and a glass jar, and the hatch- ing process commenced. The water was 40° at the surface and 41° in the cones; specific gravity 1.0070, that of sea water being from 1.0240 to 1.0290. The eggs sunk at once to the bottom, and were, in consequence- treated as shad eggs. About 00 per cent, were apparently alive on Sun, day morning, but the development had entirely ceased; in fact, the germinal disc seemed to have contracted. On Monday morning there were but few eggs alive (about 1 in 500), and no development since they were placed in the water of Chesapeake Bay. The germinal disc was much distorted. It was difficult to find a live egg in the evening, and the few discovered presented the same abnormal appearance. We have found no live eggs this morning (Tuesday). Those that survived the longest were strangely distorted, indicating, I think, that the trouble was with the water. Nets were set Sunday evening in five fathoms opposite Point Lookout, but no fish taken. We went to Saint Jerome's Creek early Monday morning, and landed the lumber shipped for that place. At noon we ran over to Barren Island, where the cutter was left, to set a gang of nets; this vessel then went to the Patuxent, where another lot of nets were set. The latter have been taken up, but no fish caught. At 9.45 p. m. the cutter returned with a few menhaden, taken near the bottom in 20 fathoms water — no other fish in the nets. I propose using the dredge and trawl here, then off Barren Island, and will set the nets off Tangier Sound to-night; Cherrystone, to-morrow night; York River, the following day, and then return to the Potomac. This programme will depend on the weather. Steadier Fish Hawk, Patuxent River, February 28, 1882. My report of February 28 closed at 9.45 a. m. At 10 a. m. we com- menced dredging in the deepest water at the mouth of the Patuxent River to ascertain what life, if any, could be found in the bed of the stream. We found it to be absolutely barren, and the towing net failed to produce anything from the surface. Three hauls of the trawl were then taken off Barren Island in the deepest water of the bay, 25 fathoms, the only results being a few young 134 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. menhaden, young herring, and another small fish, perhaps another vari- ety of herring, a few shrimp, one craw-fish, and a few small shells. Having examined this locality to my satisfaction, we started for Tan- gier Sound, but finding it would be late in the evening before we could arrive, I set four nets off Smith's Point and two off Point Lookout, anchoring at the latter place for the night. A thick fog shut down be- fore the last nets were out, and the weather generally had an unsatis- factory appearance. At 4 a. m., March 1, it was blowing a gale from southeast with thick fog and rain. Our anchorage beiug exposed to winds from that direc- tion, we soon had a heavy swell. The steam cutter was down and thrash- ing about in the most lively manner, and the ship was somewhat uneasy, so much so that 1 did not consider it prudent to attempt to take the cutter on board. I ordered steam raised as soon as things begau to get uncom- fortable, and when ready we got under way ; felt our way around Corn- field Point with the lead and anchored off Smith's Creek, where we found comparatively smooth water till about 10 a. in., when, the fog lifting, we went into Smith's Creek for a harbor. The wind moderated during the afternoon, and went round to northwest during the night. To-day the weather has been simply perfect. We were under way soon alter daylight this morning, and started for our nets, which had been out since the evening of the 28th ultimo. In passing the oyster beds off Smith's Creek, I observed that they were entirely abandoned by the dredgers, and as we had done some work there last season (finding oysters plentiful) I was curious to know the reason. A few hauls of the dredge demonstrated the fact that they were practically exhausted, our average being but a bushel to a haul, and these of a small size. We found the nets off Point Lookout in good condition, but no sign of fish in them, the only catch being a good quantity of bryozoa, medusaB, and grass. They stood the pile in their exposed condition remarkably well. Those at Smith's Point, on the contrary, were entirely demoralized, one end having broken adrift from its anchor, we found the entire lot in a " snarl " around the lee moorings, no sign of fish having been near them. Two of the four nets out at this place arc expended; the others will be repaired. The dredge and trawl were used in deep water off the point, but the waters were barren as usual. Arriving off the Sound early this afternoon we used the rake dredge in order to see if there was anything burrowing in the sand and mud of the bottom. We found nothing but half a dozen common worms, a few shrimp, and dead oyster shells. We are at anchor for the uighl in Cod Harbor, and our nets are set across the entrance to the Sound. March .">. — We took the nets up at daylight. There were no fish in them, but they were loaded with great masses of grass, bryozoa, &c. As soon as the nets were on board, we got under way and started for Fort- BULLETIN OF THE EXITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 135 rcss Monroe for supplies. It seems that the stewards trusted somewhat to the resources of the places we expected to visit when laying iu stores, and now find themselves running short. We will go either to York River or Cherrystone to-night, being gov- erned by the weather. We can do nothing with nets at the latter place, unless it is calm and smooth, as they are to.be set in the open bay. Should we rind anything iu York River it will be an inducement to try our fortune in Mob Jack Bay: if not, it will hardly be worth while. Our present plan is to spend about three or four more working-days in the bay and Lower Potomac, and then return to Washington. 1.45 p. m. — Arrived at Fortress Monroe. Will leave about 2.30 for Cherrystone. Steamer Fish Hawk, Tangier Sound, March 2, 1882. PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF SOME POINTS IN THE MINUTE ANA- TOMY OF THE OYSTER. By JOHN A. RYDER. There is a spacious segmentation cavity developed iu the embryo which becomes the subdivided body cavity (schizoccel) of later stages. Between the ecto- and entoblast the mesenchymal or mesoblastic tis- sue is developed, apparently, and for comparative embryological reasons, from the two former by proliferation, whereby the segmentation cavity becomes in part obliterated. The mesoblast of the embryo, formed as above stated, is the tissue from which the mesenchyme or connective tissue of the adult is devel- oped. The blood channels, or canals, are developed in the mesenchyme; no specialized endothelial lining cells are ever differentiated, the mesen- chymal cells form their immediate walls. An exception to this is found only in the structure of the anterior and posterior aorta?, the heart, and branchio- cardiac vessels, which have proper walls. Iu some places the mesenchymal tissue is found to be spongy, its cells being built around complex anastomosing spaces for the blood. There is, therefore, a true schizoccel developed in the oyster; -it has been formed as the mesenchyme has grown into the segmentation cavity, which has been subdivided in this way into haemal canals and spaces as develop- ment proceeded. The heart, as in the embryo fish, develops in the blastoccel or segmen- tation cavity, the pericardiac space being a remnant of the latter, (dee Davaine, Recherches sur la Generation des Huitres. Mem. de la Soc. de Biologie IV, Paris, 1853. The foregoing statement is made upon the evidences afforded by the observations of the author above cited, ou the development of the heart.) The adductor of the shell and the radiating muscles of the mantle, as 136 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. well as those of the heart, are derived from the mesoblastic or mesen- chymal structures of the auimal. The radiating muscular bundles of the adult lie just beneath the ectoblast, or epithelium, on the outer sides of the mantle leaves. The muscular fibers of the walls of the heart are not striated, and decussate in every direction. The cavity of the heart is crossed in various directions by muscular bands, and a more or less complete mus- cular septum divides the ventricle in the median line. The heart is therefore approximately four-chambered. The mesenchymal or mesoblastic tissues compose the great bulk of the body of the animal, and extend out into and lorm the greatest pro- portion of the thickness of the mantle, and also down into the branchiae, where it forms thick transverse vertical septa between the outer com- poundly ribbed walls of the branchial pouches lined with ectoblast. The mesenchyme also gives support to all the viscera, the stomach, liver, intestines, and reproductive organs being embedded in it. The branchial blood-channels are also limited by the mesenchyme. The mesenchymal cells are large, and will average sthjth of an inch in diameter. They inclose, in all cases, both in winter and summer, a large irregular nucleus, from which a complex network of intracellular fibrils radiate in all directions through the enveloping cellular substance. At one side of the nucleus there are always one or more accessory bod- ies perfectly globular. The mesenchymal elements are not fat cells, as has been erroneously supposed by Brooks. The mesenchymal cells are probably very hygroscopic, which explains why it is that oysters may be much swollen by osmose in a short time by immersion in water of less specific gravity than the sea-water in which they grew. The. mesenchyme may be regarded as the connective tissue of the animal. It corresponds morphologically to that structure in other types. There is an apparent atrophy of the mesenchyme in the body-mass and mantle during the spawning season, with a great concomitant de velopment of the reproductive follicles or tubules. In winter the repro- ductive follicles atrophy, when the mesenchyme again increases in bulk in the body-mass and mantle. These facts appear to show that the reproductive elements are derived from the mesenchyme by a transfor- mation of its substance in which their follicles are embedded. It is the great development of the mesenchymal substance in the au- tumn and winter, when the reproductive function is in abeyance, that constitutes the condition of the animal known to oysiermen as " fatness." This word expresses the condition well enough, practically, but it is scientifically incorrect, since there is scarcely any fatty substance in the animal at any lime. In summer, when the reproductive organs are gorged with their pro. ducts, their follicles are crowded together into contact ; in winter, in their atrophied condition,. they lie embedded in the superficial portion BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 137 of the mesenchyme of the body -mass the same as in summer, but are much less developed, so as to appear in .sections like a very open net- work of strands of very small nucleated inc pient embryo cells, the connection of which may be traced into the now collapsed and inter- nally ciliated branches of the oviducts. All the parts of the reproduc- tive apparatus are therefore present in winter, but in an undeveloped condition. The oviducts branch 'and spread over each side of the body-mass just extern, d to the stratum of reproductive follicles and immediately beneath the mantle. They do not ramify through the substance of the repro- ductive organ, but lie externally to it. Their principal openings on each side of the body-mass pour their contents into the suprabrancnial chambers on each side just below the muscle. The liver is a diverticulum from the entoblastic walls of the stomach. The great bile ducts pass outward from the cavity of the stomach, and subdivide again and again, and end blindly in spacious ovoidal hepatic follicles, the simple walls of which consist of hepatic cells. The func- tion of the liver is in all probability both excretory and secretory, and takes an all-important share in the processes of digestion. The entoblastic wall of the intestine is folded inwards at oue side for its entire length in a peculiar way, so that its lumen is more or less cres- centic in cross section. There are neither annular nor longitudinal muscular fibers in the wall of the intestine ; the sole motive force in the propulsion of the ingested food appears to be exerted by the ciliary covering which clothes the in- ternal surface of the alimentary tract from Ihe mouth to the anus. The words ento- and ectoblastic as applied to the adult, correspond to the embryonic epi- and hypoblast; mesenchyme to the mesoblast. I have adopted the terms from a paper on the mesoblastic layers of em- bryos by R. and O. liertwig, in the Jenaische Zeitschrift (XV, 1st lift., 1881), in which they discuss for the first time what they designate as the Ccelom tlieory, as applied to an explanation of the origin and typical forms of mesoblast as derived from the gastrula stage, typical of all metazoau development. The body of facts which is brought forward embraces the results of the work of the principal embryological author- ities, and, although they had already been interpreted in a somewhat similar way by Huxley and McAlister, are for the first time connectedly stated so as to be of fixed value in embryological studies. They have given us a topography of the embryonic layers of the greatest value, which enables us to decipher with the greatest ease the relations and genesis of the parts of a form as comparatively undifferentiated as the adult oyster. In that they have considered Chiton as a member of their second subdivision of the Metazoa, the Pseudoccslia, characterized by the genesis of the mesoblast by proliferation from the epiblast and hypo- blast, a massive, soft, ami unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical body, it is clear from what has preceded that the oyster is also typical, and a member of this group. 138 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. THE CODFISHERIES ON THE COAST OF NORWAY. [From Fiskeri Tidende, No. 1, January, 188 J.] Codfish are very common all along the coasts of Xorway. A pecu- liar variety of the codfish, the u slcreV (winter, spring - , or sea-cod), how- ever, keeps away from the coast the greater part of the year, visiting it only at certain seasons, but then in very large numbers. It is princi- pally caught near the Vestfiord, where it gives rise to the Loffoden fish- eries, whilst between Stat and the Trondhjems fiord, especially near Sond- more it gives rise to the so-called Romsdals fisheries. At all these places the "sfcm" makes its appearance from the end of January till the begin- ning of April, for the purpose of spawning on the coast banks whose water has been warmed by the currents of the sea. The spawn floats about near the surface of the water, where the youngfish are also hatched. Other sea-cod fisheries, the Capelau fisheries, are annually carried on along the coasts of Finmarken. The cod caught here are not spawning fish, but approach the coast for the purpose of eating the capelans (hence the name), a fish of the trout family which comes near the coast about this time for the purpose of spawning. The fisheries are carried on from March to May, and about 60,000 persons gather annually at the fishing stations during the season, partly for the purpose of fishing and partly to buy and prepare fish. FISHING FOR SHAH IN SOUTH AMERICAN WATERS. [From Gloucester Telegraph, June 25, 1^42.] The "Fountain,' 1 Captain Norwood, arrived on Sunday, and the "Delta," Captain Marchant, on Tuesday, each with 200 barrels of shad. These vessels sailed from Gloucester for Buenos Ayres in the early pari of October last, and have been absenc about eight months and a half. They were obliged to be idle in the La Plata River full forty days be- fore they could obtain permission to fish ; had this not been the ease, they would undoubtedly have done well — at least they would have made saving voyages. IJULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 139 NOTE* ON THE SIIRIiUI» AND PBAWM FIK1IKRIKM OF TflttE liVBTED STATES. By BICHABD KATIIIIU1V. 1. THE EDIBLE SPECIES OF SHRIMP AND PRAWNS. At least six species of shrimp and prawns are used as food on the eoasts of the United States. They are as follows: Crangon vulgaris, Grangon franciscorum, Penaus setiferus, Pena'us brasiliemis, Pandalus Dana, and Pandalus, sp. Crangon vulgaris is common to the sea coasts of both sides of our continent; but the two species of Pencem are confined to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the Southern States, and Crangon franciscorum and both species of Pandalus to the Pacific coast. Three other species of prawns — Pandalus leptoceros, P. Mont- agui, and P. borealis — occur in great abundance in the deeper waters, off the coasts of Middle and Northern New England, and the British Provinces, and, although not now fished for, are available as food. In addition to the above, there are two species of fresh-water or river shrimp, common to the Mississippi River and its tributaries, which oc- casionally find their way into some of the interior markets. They are Palcemon Ohionis Smith, and PaUvmonetes cxilipcs Stimpson. The com- mon little shore prawn of the eastern coast of the United States, Pahc- monetes vulgaris, although extremely abundant, is too small to answer as an article of food for man. All of our shrimps and prawns are eagerly sought after as food by many of our coast fishes. The Common Shrimp. Crangon vulgaris, Fabr. Crangon vulgaris is one of the most widely distributed of all of the shrimps, occurring on both sides of the North Atlantic and on the Pacific coast of North America. Its bathymetrical range is also great, extending from low water to a depth of GO or 70 fathoms. Ou the Atlantic coast of North America, it has been recorded from North Caro- lina to Labrador, and on the Pacific coast, from Point Conception to Alaska (Mutiny Bay). It is eaten in Europe as well as in this country. "It is found in greatest abundance in shallow, and on sandy or weedy bottoms, but occurs also on muddy, shelly, and rocky bottoms." It varies much in coloration, imitating to a great extent the color of the bottom on which it lives. "It needs all its powers of concealment, for it is eagerly hunted and captured by nearly all the larger fishes which frequent the same waters. Fortunately it is a very prolific species, and is abundant along the entire coast, from North Carolina to Labrador, wherever sandy shores occur." [Verrill.] The youug swim free at the surface, for a considerable period after hatching. On the Southern New England coast, the eggs hatch during 140 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. May and June, but farther south, as in Chesapeake Bay, the spawning season is somewhat earlier. This species attains a length of over two inches, exclusive of the feelers, but generally occurs much smaller than this. So i'iir as we are aware, it is not captured for food south of New York, although it has been found in extreme abundance and of good size in Chesapeake Bay and elsewhere south, by the U. S. Fish Com- mission. In its favorite haunts it frequently occurs in vast numbers, and may be readily captured in marketable quantities. On the California coast, according to Mr. W. N. Locking ton, Crangon vulgaris occurs, associated with another species of the same, genus (Crangon franciseorum), which excels it in size and generally in abun- dance. The average length of specimens there is said to be about '-'.'; inches; a length of over 3 inches is sometimes attained. It is distin- guished from Crangon frandscorum in having a darker-colored tail and a larger proportion of black markings upon the body, as well as by the different form of the hand or larger claw. From its black coloring it has received among fishermen the name of black-tailed crab. The California SnniMP. Crangon franciscorxm, Stimpson. This species, according to Mr. Lockington, is the shrimp par excellence of the San Francisco markets, where it is sold during nearly every month of the year. It averages in length from 3 to3J inches. The characters by which it is distinguished from Crangon vulgaris have already been enumerated. Its range, so far as determined, is very limited, being from Puget Sound to Point Conception. In San Francisco and Tomales Bays it is very abundant, frequenting especially the sandy coves along the shores. It is fished for mainly by the Chinese, both for consumption in California and for shipment to China. A third species of shrimp, Bippolyte brevirostris, of a uniform light crimson or scarlet color, occurs in small quantities in San Francisco Bay, and is frequently captured along with the two species of Crangon and sold with them. The Southern Shrimps and Prawns. Penwus setiferus, M. — Ed- wards; Tenants brasilicnsis, Latr. These two closely related species compose the bulk of the large Sup- plies of shrini)) or prawns consumed in New York and the soul hern coast cities. They frequently occur associated together in the same localities, and, being so nearly alike in appearance, are not distinguished apart by the fishermen and dealers. Penceus setiferus is supposed l<> he the more abundant species; it attains a length of <> or more inches, exclusive of the feelers, and may measure more than three fourths of an inch iu depth and breadth, in the front or body part. Strangely enough these useful crustaceans are known both as shrimps and prawns to the fishermen who take them, as well as in the markets, the distinction BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 141 being made with reference to size only. According to Prof. Lewis II. Gibbes, of Charleston, S. C, the larger individuals of both species are termed prawns or sprawns, and the half-grown ones, shrimps. The prawns appear in shallow water generally in March, or, in very open springs, as early as the latter part of February, and remain in season for two or three months, after which the supply diminishes, and they retire for a time, apparently to spawn. Their spawning localities are not known, and Professor Gibbes adds, that he has never seen an individual carrying eggs. He suggests that they may ascend the rivers to spawn. In June and the succeeding months of summer, the half-grown individ- uals or "shrimps" are in season, and "for tenderness of flesh and deli- cacy of flavor are preferred to the prawns." In the autumn, they dis- appear from the coast and move into deeper water, or farther toward the south. Peiiccus brasiliensis has been found as far north as the Croton River, at Sing Sing, N. Y., and from that point ranges southward along the entire Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. It also extends to the coast of Brazil, and has been doubtfully identified from the California coast by Mr. Lockington. Pcnccus setiferw has not been recorded from northward of Norfolk, Va., but its southern range corresponds with that of the other species, at least so far as the coast of the United States is concerned. Neither of these species has been found in sufficient abun- dance north of North Carolina, however, to warrant a fishery for them. Mr. T. E. Fisher, of Fernandina, Fla., who has had much experience in this fishery, furnishes the following notes on the shrimp and prawns of his region, which he distinguishes from one another, as Professor Gibbes lias done above. "It is my opinion," he says, "that the shrimp (smaller individuals) move into deeper water at the beginning of winter, and there remain until about the full moon of March or thereabouts, when they return to the bays and rivers in great quantities, as prawns, and ascend the rivers and creeks, I think to spawn. This is the time when they are taken as food. After spawning, or about May or -luue, they return to the sea. From May to August the so-called shrimp, which then appear, are quite small, and used principally as fish bait. From August to December they grow quite rapidly. September and October are the b< -t shrimping months of the year, and May and dune are the only months when shrimp are scarce, excepting during the colder months of winter, when they leave the coast for a time." The shrimping seasons of the South Carolina and Florida coasts, therefore, correspond approximately, b< ing somewhat longer for the latter region, probably because of its milder climate. According to Mr. Silas Stearns, of Pensacola, Fla., shrimp arc abun- dant on all parts of the Gulf coast, and especially so on the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. They live on the grassy and sandy flats, and among the weeds on the bottoms of bayous and lagoons, in both salt and biackish water. Barataria Bay, of the Louisiana coast, and Galves- 142 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ton and Matagorda Bays, of the Texas coast, are notable places for the shrimp iishery. Shrimp of marketable size average about four inches in length. The habit of schooling among shrimp is common, especially in the fall, upon the Louisiana and Texas coasts. The shrimping season extends through the year, excepting the winter months. The California Prawn. Pandalus Dance Stimpson. This is a moderately large species, which finds its way into the San Francisco markets from the open ocean, between the Farallone Islands and Point Keyes, where it is very abundant. It attains a length of five inches, exclusive of the feelers. Fresh specimens are finely marked with transverse zigzag lines of white, separated by bands of red. The known range of this species is from Queen Charlotte** Island, British Columbia, to Point Conception, California. It has been noticed with spawn in November, December, and January, but the entire length of the spawning season is unknown. This species has only recently been added to the market supplies of San Francisco, from the shrimp fishermen now venturing farther out to sea than formerly. Another and smaller species of Pandalus, of a uniform light pink color, occurs associated with the above and is captured with it. Specimens of a species of Pen axis, resembling Penecus brasiliensis of the east coast. are occasionally brought to the San Francisco markets aud sold as prawns. They sometimes measure seven inches in length. The New England Deep-water Prawns. Pandalus leptoceros, Montagui, and borealis. These are three closely related species of prawns, inhabiting the deeper waters of Massachusetts Bay, the Gulf of Maine, and other areas off the coasts of New England and the British Provinces. Pan- dalus borealis attains much the largest size, while the two other species are quite uniform in this respect, and only distinguishable from one another by a close examination. The only differences which the fisher- man would observe are those of size, and he would, therefore, naturally recognize a larger and a smaller prawn, the former being Pandalus borealis, and the latter consisting of the other two species. These three prawns have not yet found their way into the markets. They occur in very much the same kind of localities, are frequently associated together, but never approach near to the shore, and cannot betaken in the ordinary fishing nets and traps used upon our coast. They are known to tin' lobster fishermen of some part of the New Eng- land coast, from the fact of their occasionally entering the lobster pots in deep water. When their haunts, great abundance, and fine flavor, as well as the proper methods of capturing them, become known to the fishermen, it is fair to suppose that they will give rise to an important industry. Such a fishery must necessarily be more difficult than the shrimp and prawn fisheries of the Southern States, and would require BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES* FISH COMMISSION. 143 more capital, in the start, for the purchase of larger boats and more extensive nets; but there is every reason to believe that it would repay the outlay to, at least, a limited number of fishermen, for many impor- tant markets are close at hand. These prawns are so readily recognized as such, in the regions to which they belong, that a description of their appearance is unneces- sary here. We abstract the following notes, mainly heaving upon their distribution, from recently published observations of Prof. S. I. Smith. PandI>. By JAMES O. SWAN. Mr. G. M. Haller, of Seattle, Wash., announces the taking by fisher- men in a net of a shad, August 26, 1882, in Puget Sound. The Seattle papers also mention it and say that it was preserved by Mr. Levy for the Young Naturalists Society of Seattle. This specimen must have come from the Columbia Biver or have found its way north from San Francisco Bay. I think it was quite small — say 8 or 10 inches long — but I have not seen the dimensions accurately given. Port Townsend, Wash., August 29, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 153 THE PROPOSED INTRODUCTION OF AMERICAN CATFISH INTO THE RIVERS OF BELGIUM. By ALFRED LEFEBTRE. [From dispatch No. 41 of the vice-consul of the United States at Ghent, Belgium, to the State Department, transmitted to the United States Fish Commission.] When Mr. Wilson was consul at this port he interested himself in a project for the improvement of the pisciculture of the country. The industries of Flanders, and especially of Ghent, concentrated, exhibited as they are in large manufacturing establishments, situated on the banks of the rivers and discharging their refuse into the water, render it unhealthy for the fish, and has resulted in their decreased numbers, if not entire disappearance in some neighborhoods. Mr. Wilson com- pared its situation to the rivers of Delaware and Schuylkill in the neighborhood of the city of Philadelphia, and expressed a belief that the catfish so common there would thrive here. He conferred with Prof. S. F. Baird, who confirmed him in this belief, and in the corre- spondence which took place between them, the feasibility of stocking these rivers with these fish seems to have been agreed upon. Mr. Wilson opened a correspondence with the authorities of Flan- ders (which has been continued by me since his departure), and it, with other causes, attracted official attention to the subject and created much interest in it. Parliament took it up ; a new law for the protection and propagation of fish is about to be passed (a copy of which I will send to the department as soon as it shall have been printed), and a committee appointed having general charge of the subject. Hon. E. Willequet, member of Parliament from Ghent, is a member of this committee ; and, not wearying you with uninteresting details, I come to the immediate object of this dispatch, which is, that the committee desire to put Mr. Wilson's and Professor Baird's scheme into operation, and have, through Mr. Willequet, requested me to communicate through the department with Professor Baird and secure his aid and co-operation. Mr. Wilson and myself have had many conversations with Mr. Wille- quet, the governor of the province, and other authorities, who are all in favor of the attempt. I inclose a translation of Mr. Willequet's notes, that they and a copy of this dispatch, if needed, may be transmitted to Professor Baird. Arrangements have been made with the Bed Star Line of steamers for shipment of the young fish from New York to Antwerp, if they can be put on board, and I will see that they are taken care of on their arrival. As you will perceive by Mr. Willequet's letter of the 22d July, 154 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. if lie only can know when the fish will arrive he will have everything in readiness to receive them. As to the work on pisciculture or ichthyology, alluded to, I would like Professor Baird to indicate one of the best, and I will procure it for the committee of which Mr. Willequet is a member. Ghent, July 26, 1882. TRANSLATION OF A LETTER OF MR. WILLEQUET, DATED 1ST JULY, 1882, TO THE UNITED STATES CONSUL AT GHENT. I have the honor to belong to the committee which has charge of elaborating the rules to append to the new law upon fisheries. In the meeting of yesterday the committee received communication of the letters sent by your predecessor at Ghent, Mr. Wilson, to the gov- ernor of the province. These letters, among other obliging things, make the offer to supply our province and our country with the eggs or live young fish of an American species which, according to Mr. Wilson, would thrive wonderfully in the rivers of our provinces. Mr. Wilson has been called to another post. I dare to hope that the United States consulate will preserve for our country, and especially for our Flanders, the good will shown until now, and I shall be very happy to be the medium to convey this kindness. TRANSLATION OF LETTER OF MR. WILLEQUET, DATED 22D JULY, 1882, TO THE UNITED STATES CONSUL AT GHENT. I hasten to answer your letter, and will begin by thanking you and the Government of the United States for the courtesy shown in this in- stance. I have taken notice of the communications of your predecessor, sent to the committee for the elaboration of the rules upon fisheries, and I am personally convinced of the efficacy of the indicated means to new- stock our rivers. As soon as these rules shall be published, and this will be, along with the law, in about five or six weeks, I will take care to send you a few copies of both. You will render good service to the public, first, by asking your gov- ernment to let us have the young catfish of which you speak, and then, by letting me know the exact time of their arrival in Belgium, as it will be necessary to prepare for them, and this has to be done with care. 1 will make in this matter all necessary communications to the Govern- ment of Belgium. It would be fortunate, also, if you could indicate a work upon pisicult- ure or ichthyology, which would allow us to study the question from the American point of view. BULLETIN. OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 155 THE PROPOSED USE OE STEALERS IIV THE JIACKERE E FISHERY. By CIIAS. W. SMILEY. Daring the second week of July quite an excitement was created at Gloucester, Mass., by the announcement that Capt. Daniel T. Church, of steamer Jemima Boomer, Tiverton, B. I., had ordered of Messrs. H. & G. Lord a mackerel seine, and that menhaden being so scarce he pro- posed to turn his steamer to good account by catching mackerel. The Cape Ann Advertiser, of July 14th, contained an article entitled, "Threat- ened innovation of the mackerel fishery," in which it said, " The doings of this steamer will be watched with a great deal of anxiety by the captains of the one hundred steamers formerly engaged in the menhaden fisheries, as well as by the large number who depend upon mackerel fish- ing for employment and for the investment of capital. It is not difficult to anticix^ate the result, if this class of steamers engage in this branch of the fisheries. There is no reason to doubt their ability to catch almost or quite as many mackerel as they have formerly caught menhaden. (Several of them are large, capable of carrying 2,800 barrels of fish in bulk. They carry a double gang of men and apparatus to correspond. During moderate weather, when mackerel generally school the best, and sailing vessels find it difficult to move, these steamers can play around the fleet of schooners, and catch almost every fish that shows itself." Having thus described the vast superiority of steamers over sailing vessels in this business, and proceeding upon the supposition that the mackerel when caught would be used for oil and guano as had the men- haden, it continues, "Can we afford to take the risk of having such a valuable fishery destroyed and have this vast industry, giving employ- ment to thousands and delicious fish-food to millions, diverted from its proper channel? Is it economy; is it justice to manufacture into oil and guano millions of barrels of the best food-fishes we have?" It then calls for legislation "to prevent the catch of mackerel for the purpose of manufacturing oil and guano." A correspondent of the Boston Advertiser, writing from Gloucester, July 10, briefly stated the same facts, and added: "The employment of these steamers has undoubtedly broken up and driven off the menhaden, and the same effect will be produced upon the mackerel. The general feeling is that some stringent laws should at once be enacted for the protection of the mackerel fishery." The same day Capt. J. W. Collins wrote to Prof. S. F. Baird stating that he had been requested by certain persons largely interested in the fisheries to bring the matter to his attention, and stating the fear that the proposed innovation will soon practically deprive us of one of the most valuable food-fishes of the American coast. To all the reports concerning the use to be made of the mackerel so 156 BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. • caught, Mr. Church replied in the Boston Herald that no steamer was being htted to take mackerel for that purpose, and he showed the un- reasonableness of such an expectation by stating that he is offered for the mackerel for food purposes $3 per barrel as they come from the water, while the market value of a barrel of mackerel after being rendered into oil and guano is $1 per barrel. The Cape Ann Bulletin took a hopeful view in its issue, July 12. It admitted that schooner fishing for mackerel was endangered, but de- clared that Gloucester fishermen would not be long in fitting out steamers of their own if that method of fishing gave indications of success. As to steamers destroying the menhaden fishing, it said, "This is an open question. The fish have always been more or less variable in their visits to the coast, and it is by no means improbable that the investiga- tions of the United States Fish Commission will discover the haunts of the menhaden and assign reasons for their change of locality. To wholly destroy any variety of fish by the hand of man is declared by competent authority to be practically impossible, since what is taken from them is but a drop in the bucket compared with what are destroyed by other means." This accords with Mr. Church's defense, in which he says, " It is a fact well known to all who have taken the pains to study the history of fish that live and multiply in the sea, that they have periods of being plenty and scarce, and that man, in his puny efforts of capture, is as nothing in comparison with the destruction by blue- fish, sharks, bonitas, and other fish of prey. Prof. Baird estimates that the blue-fish in four months destroy on the coast of New England 150,000,000 barrels of fish. When we add to the above the destruction by sharks, whales, etc., and add to that the whole coast from Maine to Mexico, and take twelve mouths' destruction instead of four, we see that man's influence is about the same as a fly's would be in trying to stop the steamer Bristol's engine by lighting on the end of the walking- beam when it was running wide open, with all the steam the law allowed." Concerning the use of steamers, Mr. Clark, writing from Gloucester, .says : " Gloucester mackerel men do insist that the ordinary use of the purse-seine does not appreciably decrease the stock of fish. Capt. Sol. Jacobs, the famous mackerel-catcher, says that one steamer can catch as many fish as ten sailing vessels ; that steamers cannot make a business of carrying fresh fish to market, for lack of ice-houses and means of keeping fish fresh enough for food. If bailed iuto the hold the lish would be fit for nothing but guano on reaching port. Steamers have not the facilities for carrying barrels and salt, nor deck room to use in splitting, salting, aud packing fish. Being entirely unfit for pre- serving mackerel, all that remains is to carry them to oil and guano factories. The time required to dress mackerel is at present a safe- guard against an over-catch; but were all hands to pitch in and see how many fish could be scooped up, regardless of their preservation, it is probable that the business would soon become a thing of the past. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 157 On mackerel vessels the mackerel pocket is useful in saving the fish alongside until they can be dressed and stowed down, besides its use in saving the seine from damage by dog-fish. The pocket would be of little use to steamers, for the reason that there is no difficulty in quickly bailing the catch from the seine into the hold." He, too, calls for legis- lation. To all these considerations Professor Baird made the following philo- sophic reply : " If the menhaden men catch an abundance of mackerel, can they afford to convert them into oil and guano? Will not these fish, how- ever small, bring better prices for canning"? There is a demand, appar- ently, for ten times as many mackerel as are produced. What can the mackerel men do in the matter ? These fisheries are prosecuted more than three miles from shore. Hence neither State nor Federal authority can do anything to prevent any foreigner from coining on the same grounds and fishing in any way he may deem best. When the fish are landed, the State can interfere; and, if it is considered that a wasteful application of the fish is being made, State laws can be enacted. They can say, for instance, that a menhaden man shall not have a mackerel in his possession, just as the same authorities declare that no man shall be found with a trout in his possession during the closed season. The dilemma is that if Massachusetts passes prohibitory laws the fish will be transferred to States not so restricted, and it will be found difficult to produce concurrent action in all the States. The fishermen cannot object to legitimate competition. If the fish are caught and sold for food, so much the better for the country. I do not believe that steam- seining for mackerel will be kept up very long, in view of the compar- atively small returns. The menhaden men, while fishing for mackerel, will, of course, utilize the new mackerel pocket and all the other de- vices." The status at the present time thus appears to be about as follows: I. It is proposed to catch mackerel by the use of steamers and the various novel appliances whereby all concede that very much larger numbers may be taken. II. The rumor that men formerly engaged in making oil and guano from menhaden will convert the mackerel to the same purpose is met with prompt denial, and with the fact that the fish will bring three times as much for food as for oil. III. As a safeguard, laws are invoked to prohibit manufacture of mackerel into oil ; to which it is replied that the Federal Government has no jurisdiction, and that the States could hardly be induced to all unite upon a common prohibition, and especially while any foreigner can catch the fish on the high seas and do as he pleases with them. IV. It was greatly feared and confidently predicted in 1878 that intro- duction of purse-seines would ruin the mackerel fisheries, but to day the 158 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Gloucester fishermen insist that although in general use no diminution is appreciable and the catch has greatly increased since 1878. V. It is now feared that steam fishing will exhaust the mackerel fish- eries, as some allege it already has the menhaden fisheries. To this it is answered that menhaden fishing was always variable, that the pres- ent absence may be but temporary, and that if permanent it was caused, not by steamers over-fishing, but very likely by great oceanic causes, such as variation in temperature, destruction of their food, &c. It is also declared that all man can do is as nothing compared with the destructive agencies of predacious fish and natural enemies. VI. The innovation, if it proves a success, is but another illustration of the advance of man in conquering the earth and bringing all its resources within his control, and if he sees the mackerel fisheries in danger of exhaustion he will find a way to propagate them and replenish the seas. THE COTTRITS CARP TRADE. [From Deutsche Fischerei-Zeihmg, vol. v, No. 30; Stettin, July 25, 1882.*] The Eeport of the Cottbus Chamber of Commerce contains some in- formation relative to the carp trade, and gives the contracts between the large Berlin fish-dealers and the presidents of the Lusatia fishery associations, which were made last year for the first time, and which probably will also in the future form the basis for all business transac- tions in the fish trade, making of course due allowance for the varia- tions in price caused by different circumstances. By the terms of these contracts 33 carp of the first quality were allowed to the hundred-weight, and 34 to 43 of the second quality. In order to make these terms less harsh, many bargains were, in 1881, concluded in the following manner: For a hundred-weight of carp (delivered free at the railroad station), containing 43 to 50 fish, 60 marks ($14.28) were paid; for 3 fish more or less to the hundred-weight, 1 mark (23.8 cents); therefore for a hundred- weight of 40 carp, 61 marks ($14.51); for one of 37 carp, 62 marks ($14.75) ; and, on the other hand, for a hundred-weight of 53 carp, 59 marks ($14.04) ; and for a hundred-weight of 50 carp, 58 marks ($13.89). The sums paid are calculated according to the average of carp per hundred-weight of the entire quantity of carp sold. The importance of the Cottbus Carp Exchange for the fish trade may be gathered from the fact that nearly 250,000 kilograms of carp are, as a general rule, bespoken by large fish-dealers, and do not enter the general market. The yield of the carp ponds in the Cottbus district alone amounted to 75,000 kilograms in 1881. As the lieport of the Chamber of Commerce remarks, tht conditions of sale are just both to the producers and buy- ers, and will in all probability remain in force for a long time. * Vom Cottbu8er Karjifeiihatidel. Translated from the German by Herman Jacobson. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1'jO A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE DEVKLOPMEIVT OF I III: OYSTER (OSTRE1 i:»IMM I,.). By DR. R. HOBST.* Duriug the past summer, as our zoological station was then estab- lished in the vicinity of the oyster banks in the Eastern Schelde, I busied myself for several weeks with the study of the history of the development of the oyster. Even though this investigation is still in- complete, I think, however, that the following communication may con- tribute to an increase of our still very fragmentary knowledge of the embryology of the bivalve mollusca. These investigations were carried on in the station at Wemeldinge,t where, during my stay, I experienced many disinterested and important favors at the hands of MM. Zocher and De Leeuw. The study of the history of the development of the oyster is beset with peculiar difficulties, to which the French zoologist, M. Lacaze-Duthiers, alludes as follows: "The oyster is certainly one of the most difficult of the species of the group of acephalous lamellibranchs to study, both in relation to its organization as well as its development."! While in the case of most of the lower animals the sexes are confined to 'distinct individuals, and the sexual products, when mature, freely escape from the body, the fertilization taking place outside the latter, with the oyster this is not the case. Xot only do the embryos pass through their first stages of development within the mantle cavity of the adult, and impregnation occurs internally instead of externally, but it may also be said that the eggs and spermatozoa come into contact in their passage out of the generative glands. If it is desired to observe the first changes of the fertilized egg, it is therefore impossible to resort to artificial impregnation as in the case of most other lower animals, and one is obliged to trust to finding individuals which are full of brood, which may be opened for the purpose. If a mother oyster is opened in the usual way, that is, by cutting through the adductor muscle, the animal soon dies, and the normal development of the brood which it contains is also disturbed; for one may keep the embryos alive in an aquarium for several days, though abnormal conditions soon make their appear- ance, if the development itself does not come to a complete standstill. Lacaze-Duthiers observes that he kept oyster larvae alive in aquaria longer than a month, but he affirms that during all of this time slow changes of organization occurred, which it is safe to say were not nor- * Bijdrage tot de Kermis van de Outwikkelingsgeschiedenis van de Oester (Ostrea edulisL.), door Dr. K. Horst, in Utrecht. Extracted from Tijdschr. d. Ned. Dierk. Vcreen, dl. vi, 1882. Translated by J. A. Eyder. Abstr. in Zoolog. Anzeiger, 3d April, 1882. tSee the 6th yearly report (Jaarverslag) of the zool. station.") X Me"ni. sur le developpement des ac6phales laniellibranches. (Comptes rendu, cad. Sc, Paris, t. xxxix, p. 1197.) 160 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. inal. In one instance I was successful in making an opening at the edge of the shell of an adult, by which means the animal was very slightly, if at all, injured, and which enabled me to introduce a pipette into the mantle cavity in order to obtain embryos and to follow the un- disturbed development for a couple of days; but this method was not long available, since every time embryos were detached artificially great numbers would escape from the parent, so that all of the brood was soon lost. It is, therefore, impossible to obtain an unbroken series of the different stages of development, but it is necessary to resort to the method of comparison of the observed stages, and in that way endeavor to form an idea of the mode of development. It is also a fact that one cannot always distinguish by external marks those adults which contain brood ; the relaxation of the adductor muscle and the less energetic closure of the shell consequent upon that condition is a pretty sure indication that the oyster is full of embryos, but this does not remove our doubts as to the age of the brood and how soon it will be set free. I also obtained many more mother oysters containing old than young brood, and I would state here that in consequence of this fact the first stages of segmentation are in great part unknown to me, a hiatus which I hope to have the opportunity to fill up next season. Davaine* has figured several of the first stages of the segmentation of the egg of Ostrea ediilis; if these are compared with the stages ob- served by me, as in Figs. 1 and 2, and with those observed by Brooks t in his account of the development of Ostrea virginiana, there remains little doubt that the first stages of segmentation of the egg of the oys- ter take place in a manner similar to that of the eggs of other lamelli- branchs. From the beginning of development onwards there is already a decided difference between the lowermost (vegetative) and the upper- most (animal) portion of the egg, so that after repeated cleavage the lowermost pole consists of a large granular cell, from which the ento- derm (and mesoderm f) develop, while at the upper pole lie numerous smaller and clearer cells, which enter into the formation of the ecto- derm (Fig. 1). These animal or ectoderm cells multiply by repeated fission and grow down over the vegetative pole more and more, until they finally close over and include it. Now the large entoderm cell or sphere also begins to divide, at first into two great round cells (Fig. 2), later into a number of cylindrical cells (Fig. 4) ; at the same time the embryo loses its spherical form, and after an invagination of the ento- derm of the lower pole it assumes a slightly rcniform shape, as seen from the side in Fig. 3, in which the uppermost pole is represented as directed upwards. If an older stage is now observed in longitudinal section (Fig. 4), it is seen that the entoderm cells are slightly invag- * Recherches sur la generation des Hultres, PI. II. I The development of the American oyster (Ostrea virginiana List.). Studies from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, No. IV, 18SU, Lis. 1, 2, and 3. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1G1 inated, and that in this way a true gastrula stage has been developed. It is plain, however, that no true gastrulation takes place, since it is not possible to demonstrate a true cleavage cavity; indeed it appears to be, as it were, a transition form between a gastrula formed by em- bolic invagination and one developed by the epibolic downgrowth of the ectoderm over the entoderm. This last form appears to be common to other marine lamellibranchs. Indeed Eabl * has already pointed out that these apparently and fundamentally different modes of the forma- tion of the gastrula are connected together by a series of transition forms, and that both may be referred to essentially the same process. The embryo oyster at this stage is remarkable in that there is not only an invagination at the vegetative pole, but that there is also visi- ble a distinct transverse groove formed a little below the apex of the opposite pole. When the. embryo is viewed from the side the latter in- vagination immediately becomes apparent (Fig. 5, si-), and an optic sec- tion (Fig. 4) teaches us that it has originated from a mass of ectoderm cells which have been pushed inwards towards the center of the embryo. In the course of further development (Figs. 7 and 8), a sack with a nar- row cavity is developed from this invagination, the walls of which are formed of long, cylindrical cells; the blind end of the sack is now di- rected towards the dorsal side of the embryo, whilst the direction of its cavity is parallel with the longitudinal axis of the latter. Without doubt, as we see in the case of older stages, this sack or invagination is nothing more than the shell gland. The assertion of Folf that the shell gland in the embryos of Ostrea is not a true invagination, but that it is merely an ectodermal thickening, slightly hollowed out, is thus seen not to be very just, and apparently rests on what is observed in the older stages, where, as in other embryo mollusks provided with an external shell, the invagination becomes gradually shallower. As is well known, this organ was first observed in the Cephalophora, and was afterwards met with by Ray Lankesterf and Hatschek§ amongst the lamellibranchs (Pisklium and Teredo) ; in comparison with the genera just named, the shell gland of the oyster appears very early in embry- onic life. The first investigators who studied the development of the oyster, Davaine and Lacaze-Duthiers, speak of " une echancrure" and " une depression" from the presence of which the embryo becomes heart- shaped when viewed from the side ; this invagination therefore appears to have been known to the older authors, although its significance was not understood by them. According to the investigations of Brooks, the embryo of Ostrea virginiana also has a deep depression or groove on * Entwickelung der Tellerschnecke. Morph. Jabrbueh, Bd. V, p. 601. t Etudes sur le de>eloppement des Mollusques. Arcli. de Zoologie ixpe'r., T. vi, p. 186. tOu the developmental history of Mollusca. Philos. Transac. Eoy. Soc, 1874. 9 Ueber Entwickelungsgesckichte vou Teredo. Arbeiteu aus dein Zool. lust. Wien.. T. III. Bull. U. S. F. C, 82 11 Feb, 1, 1883. 162 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. dorsal side, which he considers the external opening of the gastrula — the blastopore. If, however, we compare his Fig. 32 {op. cit.) with my figures 5, G, and 8, then I believe that we may infer with great prob- ability that the structure regarded as the blastopore by Brooks is noth- ing more than the external opening of the shell gland. This view is further sustained by the fact that he observed that at a later period the shell began to develop at this point, regarded by him as the open- ing of the blastopore. Such a mode of development of the shell of lamellibranchs has hitherto been observed only by Eabl* in Unio, and is so entirely opposed to the observations which have been made on the development of other lamellibranchs that, as has been capably observed, the matter should be more closely reinvestigated. Returning to the embryo represented in Fig. 6, we see that the ento- •dermal field or area, which in an earlier stage (Fig. 4) presents as yet little more than a slight depression, has now acquired the form of a deep invagination with a tubular cavity, the true gastrula form (pro- togaster) ; behind the mouth of the gastrular opening lie a pair of large cells, which may apparently be regarded as the first mesodermal cells, although their mode of origin as well as their further development I have failed to discover. In the embryo of the following day (Fig. 8) one already encounters mesoderm cells on the dorsal side of the rudi- mentary intestine. The ventral portion of the embryo which lies below the mouth now begins to be pushed out, so that a foot-like prominence is developed, whereby the embryo assumes some likeness to a young gastropod. The blastopore is still very distinctly visible, and has a peculiar triangular form, as seen from the anterior end, as in Fig. 7. As far as I have been able to make out, the blastopore does not close, but is transformed directly into the permanent mouth. For even in those forms in which the blastopore closes, the oesophagus as well as the permanent mouth is formed by an invagination of the ectoderm and also in those in which the blastopore does not close, the ectoderm cells have a share in building up the anterior portion of the alimentary canal. During the further growth of the embryo, great internal as well as externa] changes take place; which is true in the first place in regard to the shell gland, which gradually loses its original character of a glandular invagination ; its walls are reflected outwards, so that it again becomes merely a shallow depression, with a thickened floor of long conical cells (Fig. 9, sli). A cuticular membrane, s, the product of the secretion of these cells, represents the primitive foundation of the shell, and upon this point, in the full grown animal, rests the hinge. Accord- ingly, the representations of Davainc, who remarks, a Un trait transpa- rent * * * * c'est le premier indicode la charmere," are fully borne out. The bivalve shell of the oyster is thus plainly seen to develop from * Ueber die Eutwiokelungsgeschichte der Malcrmuschel. (Jen. Zeitschrift, XL, 187G.) BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1G3 a simple unpaired rudiment, in opposition to the observations of Lacaze- Duthiers, according to whom both halves of the shell originate, "par deux boursouiiements de Penveloppe", (?) which afterwards unite to form the hinge. Brooks, in discussing this point recently ill regard to the American oyster, observes that the shell from the first consists of two distinct halves, which develop froin a small, irregular, transparent tract which lies in and athwart the dorsal groove or depression— his blastopore. If it is also borne in mind, as I have before observed, that the pecu- liar character of this groove and the true blastopore have apparently escaped the observation of the last-named author, then we may be justly allowed to entertain some doubts as to the correctness of his in- terpretation. On the other hand, the description given by Hatschek of the first appearance of the shell in Teredo, agrees perfectly with that observed by me in Ostrea, and we may, as it appears to me, with safety assume that the development of the shell in all mollusks takes place in the name icay. This admits of no question; and, as the last-named investi- gator very justly observes, it is a weighty argument in support of the position so ably defended by Yon Jhering, viz, the theory of the mono- phyletic descent of the Mollusca. Meanwhile, the ectoderm frees itself over almost the whole circumfer- ence of the embryo from the entoderm, so that now, for the first time, a body cavity (segmentation cavity) becomes apparent; a crown of cilia is also developed above the mouth, and the velar area (included by the ciliary girdle) is composed of columnar cells (Fig. 9). The entoderm has, meanwhile, enlarged and includes a spacious stomach cavity, from which a sac-like outgrowth is developed below, which still ends blindly, but which will afterwards be fused with the ectoderm to form the anal end of the intestine. In the stage of development attained by the next day (Fig. 10), the shell has grown considerably in size. It now covers a large portion of the body, and, as indicated by treatment with acids, is already in part composed of lime carbonate. After the application of dilute acetic acid there remained only a tough membraue of conchioline. The ectoderm 2ells, which lie below the shell, have by this time become extremely flat- tened and transparent, so that one can no longer make out their con- tours, and with difficulty their highly refringent nuclei. The larva (Fig. 11), which now 7 takes in nourishment, moves about with a lively motion and begins to grow slowly ; the velum now forms a prominent portion of the body, which will be entirely covered by the shell as the latter grows larger. The velar area, which is included by the ciliary crown of the velum, is already slightly thickened in the center, the rudiment of the velar plate. A funnel-shaped oesophagus passes into the wide pear- shaped stomach which communicates posteriorly with the exterior through the intermediation of the intestine. After the appearance of pigment on various parts of the body (velar JG-L BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. plate, oesophagus, and blind saccular portion of the stomach), the brood begins to assume a gray or bluish color. The dimensions of the valves are now O mn, .lC (about T ^j of an inch) ; their form is almost circular, ex- cept the hinge border, which is straight. As already noted by Lacaze- Duthiers, the hinge at this stage is already provided with teeth. One may now note that the whole animal is withdrawn within the shell from time to time. This is effected principally by the help of a dorsal and a ventral muscle, ds and vs, which originate near the hinge border, and are inserted at the base of the velum. These muscles are formed of branched, attenuated, mesodermal cells, the branches of which traverse the body cavity in various directions. Several of these cells, which ex- tend across from the left to the right half of the shell, have been aggre- gated into a group, and form a distinct adductor muscle, sp. Whenever the larva swims it thrusts the head or velar end of the body out of the shell, and partly turns it outwards over the edges of the latter anteriorly. The preoral ciliary crown consists of a double row of long cilia. If the velar area is viewed from above, the cilia will be found implanted upon two nearly approximated rows of almost rectangular cells. From each of these cells two cilia arise, which in stained preparations may be traced for some distance into the cellular protoplasm. I was unable to detect a post oral ciliary band, although the cephalic extremity of the embryo behind the preoral band is clothed with cilia. The velar area now con- sists in great part of a single layer of very much flattened cells, which can scarcely be defined even when aided by the presence of their stained nuclei; only in the center is there a marked thickening, which projects inwards, composed of distinct layers of ectodermal cells (tp). This is the structure which we have heretofore been designating by the name of velar area [topplaat; German, Scheitclplatte), and from which the supracesophageal ganglion is developed. A longitudinal groove appears to divide this area superficially into two halves, but in consequence of a black pigment which is usually developed in this region, I could not make it out distinctly. Peripheral nerves, which pass outwards from the central velar thickening, such as were observed in the larvae of Teredo by Hatschek, were not encountered by me. The above-men- tioned ectodermal thickening appears to have been noticed in the larval oyster by Davaine, as well as by Lacaze-Uuthiers, but was at first re- garded by both as the oral opening — an error which was afterwards rec- tified by the last-named investigator. Together with the other parts of the body the intestinal canal has also progressed in development, the oesophagus, which has been pig- mented with a brown color, has grown longer, and its anterior portion has been widened, and become funnel-shaped. The cavity of the stomach has grown in length, and a constriction divides it into an up- per and a lower portion. From the upper portion on the left and right sides a large round blind sac (/) has been developed, which constitutes the rudiment of the liver, while at the level of the constriction the in- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 165 testiue arises, making a couple of bends upon itself before opening into the mantle cavity (mh). The entire internal surface of the alimen- tary canal is clothed with cilia, with apparently the exception of the hepatic diverticulum (/), the internal surface of which it is difficult to observe iu consequence of the presence of a black pigment. At the point where the rudimentary foot was formerly developed, a thickening of the ectoderm is now formed, of the same character as that already described as arising in the center of the velar area. This mass also contains a large number of nuclei ; but whether the pedal ganglion is developed from it, I have not been able to make out, nor could I dis- cover the presence of auditory vesicles, though Lacaze-Duthiers claims to have seen them. Nor was I more fortunate in detecting the presence of excretory organs, although I made special efforts to discover them; otherwise the numerous points of agreement, of the larva (trochophora) of the oyster with those presented by Teredo, were complete, with only these slight exceptions. Perhaps renewed investigation would show that the segmental organs also are not wanting. Older stages than that represented in Fig. 12 I was unfortunately not able to investigate, so that regarding the length of the period which intervenes between the time when the larvos are set free, and the time at which they fix them- selves, as well as the changes which they undergo during this period, I am unable to affirm anything. The difficulties encountered in distinguishing the young oyster, im- mediately after it has attached itself, I believe I have entirely overcome : and instead of using the ordinary collector for this purpose, which is covered with a mixture of lime and sand, a collector should be used which is covered with an even coat of clean lime ; for the numerous little asperities due to the presence of the sand grains; make it difficult even for the sharp-sighted oyster fishermen to distinguish the shells of the young oysters on the collectors of the usual form. In order to have the surface as even as possible, I used panes of glass instead of the usual form of collector, though this is not positively necessary. After one of these panes of glass had been immersed in the water for eight days, several young oysters were found to be attached ; of these the largest measured mm .85 (about -fa inch), and the smallest scarcely mm .57 (about 4V inch) in diameter, though the latter was already visible to the naked eye. The experiments instituted by Dr. De Leeuw and myself, in order to learn if the young oysters would fix themselves in inclosed basins, have not yet been completed. Before closing, I would call attention in this place to a probable enemy of oyster brood. In my aquarium, in which a mother oyster was placed, and which every now and then threw out a great quantity of brood, there were also a couple of actiniae of the same species which is very often observed attached to oyster shells. It occurred to me that the quantity of brood was diminishing too rapidly, and upon making 166 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. an investigation of the matter I found a number of small bluish-gray pellets, a couple of millimeters in diameter, floating about in the water. Just then I saw one of the actinire eject a similar pellet from its mouth. Upon investigating one of these pellets microscopically I learned that it consisted of nothing else than the empty shells of young oysters, the remains of the ingested food of the actinia. Although I do not believe that the actinia 1 , under ordinary natural conditions, have the opportu- nity to destroy as many larvae as noted above, they may, however, be able to destroy great quantities, as they are present in great numbers, attached to the old oysters at the sea bottom. en *. in.es sk^r to BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 167 12. Explanation of the Plate. Fig. 1. — Segmented egg showing the large vegetative cell below, and the numerous animal cells above. Fig. 2. — Older stage, seen from above, showing the two entodermal cells shimmering through from below. Fig. 3. — Embryo seen from the side, showing the commencement of the gastrular invagination. Fig. 4. — More advanced stage, seen in optic section, showing the entodermal invagi- nation and the commencement of the shell gland ; ec, ectoderm ; en, ento- derm ; o, gastrula mouth — blastopore ; sk, shell gland. Fig. 5. — Still older embryo, seen from the side ; v, foot ; the other letters with the same signification as before. Fig. 6. — The same stage soen in optic section ; me, mesoderm ; f7, gastrula cavity or archenteron. Fig. 7.— Embryo one day older, seen from the anterior end, showing the triangular opening of the blastopore. Fig. 8. — Tbe same stage in optic section. Fig. 9. — Embryo one day older, seen in section, with ciliary crown (vellum), stomach cavity, and rudiment of the shell developed ; s, shell. FlG. 10. — A more advanced stage seen from the side, with tbe shell further developed. FlG. 11. — Larva still more advanced, with velar disk or area developing, the central thickening of which, tp, is apparent; a, anus; e, rectal end of intestine ; m, stomach; «7, o-sophagus ; tp, rudiment of supraceBophageal ganglion. FlG. 12. — More advanced larva with a double prooral girdle of cilia, hepatic sac, mus- cles, and rudiment of supraoesophageal ganglion developed; ds, dorsal pallial muscle ; rs, ventral pallial muscle ; sp, adductor muscle ; I, hepatic sac or diverticulum of the stomach ; mh, mantle cavity. The remaining letters have the same signification as in x^revious figures. 168 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CARP PROPAGATION AND BLI7E CARP. BY GEORGE ECKARDT. [From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] I am here to construct spawning ponds in Forest Park for the Missouri Fish Commission. The success it had last year in those park ponds is not satisfactory, but good enough to fill all the applications. We have carp six months old from 4 to 14£ inches long and in very fine condition, only not of the right shape. I have to go to Germany, militaria causa, and will bring over some adult blue carp for the Missouri Commission next February. The blue carp is just the fish for the country, because it likes warm climate better than the other, and is only spawning when they have a good summer in Germany. St. Louis, Mo., December 8, 1882. FEEDING CARP WITH INDIAN CORN. By CARL NIC'KLAS. [From "Deutsche-Fischerei-Zeitung," vol. V, No. 38, Stettin, September 19, 1882.*] What would be the proportion of nutritive matter in 1 kilogram of boiled Indian corn if mixed with 1 kilogram of "meat-flour?" According to Professor Wolff, "meat-flour" contains: G8 per cent, of digestible albumen, no hydrates of carbon, and 11.2 per cent, of fat ; Indian corn, 8.4 per cent, of albumen, CO.G per cent, hydrates of carbon, and 4.8 per cent, of fat. The proportion of nutritive matter in "meat- flour" is, therefore, Nh : Mr = 1 : 0.4; and in Indian corn 1 : 8.6; conse- quently the proportion in Indian corn is 21.5 times greater than in "meat-flour." In 1 kilogram (1,000 grams) "meat-flour" there are con- tained 089 grams albumen, no hydrates of carbon, and 112 grams fat ; in 1 kilogram Indian corn : 84 grams albumen, GOO grams hydrates of carbon, and 48 grams fat. Even if one were to suppose — which, how- ever, is hardly possible — that, in feeding carp, the proportion of nutri- tive substances is immaterial, and that only the quantity of albumen is essential, it would take 8 kilograms of albumen to reach the same quantity of nutritive substance as 1 kilogram "meat-flour," because the quantity of albumen in 8 kilograms Indian corn is about the same as that contained in 1 kilogram "meat-flour." Indian corn is, there- fore, among the most irrational and expensive articles of food for carp. Boiling does not change this, but only tends to make the Indian corn a little more digestible. If you boil 1 kilogram Indian corn with 3.5 kilograms dry blood, so that the fluid is entirely absorbed by the corn, you will get the right proportion of nutritive substances, viz : about 1 : 0.0. It is preferable to make a paste of corn-meal and blood in the above mentioned quantities. * "Fiitterung der Karpfen mit Mais." Translated from German by H. Jacobson. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 169 THE FIRST DECADE OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION: ITS PLA1V OF WORK AND ACCOMPLISHED RESULTS, SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMICAL. By G. BROWN GOODE.* There are nine departments of the government devoted, in part or wholly, to researches in pure and applied science — the Geological Survey; the Coast and Geodetic Survey; the Naval Observatory; the National Museum ; the Department of Agriculture; the Entomological Commission; the Tenth Census, with its special agencies for the study of the natural resources of the country; the Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology, and the Commission of Eish and Fisheries. The Smithso- nian Institution, established upon an independent foundation, should also be mentioned, as well as the Medical Museum of the Army, and the various laboratories under the control of the Army and Navy Depart- ments. The Geological Survey is not now carrying on any of the schemes of zoological and botanical investigation engaged in by its predecessors. The work of the Entomological Commission and that of the census, though of extreme importance, are limited in scope and duration, while that of the Agricultural Department is necessarily, for the most part, economical. The work of the National Museum is chiefly confined to the study of collections made by government surveys or individual collectors and sent in to be reported upon. The work of the Eish Commission, in one of its aspects, may perhaps be regarded as the most prominent of the present efforts of the govern- ment in aid of aggressive biological research. On the 9th of February, 1874, Congress passed a joint resolution which authorized the appointment of a Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. The duties of the Commissioner were thus defined: "To prosecute investigations on the subject (of the diminution of valuable fishes) with the view of ascertaining whether any and what diminution in the number of the food-fishes of the coast and the lakes of the United States has taken place; and, if so, to what causes the same is due; and also whether any and what protective, prohibitory, or precautionary measures should be adopted in the premises, and to report upon the same to Congress." The resolution establishing the office of Commissoner of Fisheries required that the person to be appointed should be a civil officer of the government, of proved scientific and practical acquaintance with the fishes of the coast, to serve without additional salary. The choice was thus practically limited to a single man, for whom, in fact, the office had *Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Boston, August 28, 1880. 170 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. been created. Professor Baird, at that time assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, was appointed and entered at once upon his duties. The summer of 1880 marks the tenth season of active work since its inception in 1S71. The Fish Commission now fills a place tenfold more extensive and useful than at first. The present essay aims to show, in a general way, what it has done, is doing, and expects to do — its purposes, its methods, its results. The work is naturally divided into three sections : 1. The systematic investigation of the waters of the United States and the biological and physical problems which they present. The scientific studies of the commission are based upon a liberal and philosophical interpretation of the law. In making his original plans the Commis- sioner insisted that to study only the food-fishes would be of little importance, and that useful conclusions must needs rest upon a broad foundation of investigations purely scientific in character. The life history of species of economic value should be understood from begin- ning to end, but no less requisite is it to know the histories of the animals and plants upon which they feed or upon which their food is nourished; the histories of their enemies and friends and the friends and foes of their enemies and friends, as well as the currents, temperatures, and other physical phenomena of the waters in relation to migration, reproduction, and growth. A necessary accompaniment to this division is the amassing of material for research to be stored in the national and other museums for future use. 2. The investigation of the methods of fisheries of past and present, and the statistics of production and commerce of fishery products. Man being one of the chief destroyers of fish, his influence upon their abun- dance must be studied. Fishery methods and apparatus must be examined and compared with those of other lands, that the use of those which threaten the destruction of useful fishes may be discouraged, and that those which are inefficient may be replaced by others more service- able. Statistics of industry and trade must be secured for the use of Congress in making treaties or imposing tariffs, to show to producers the best markets, and to consumers where and with what their needs may be supplied. 3. The introduction and multiplication of useful food-fishes through- out the country, especially in waters under the jurisdiction of the general government, or those common to several States, none of which might feel willing to make expenditure for the benefit of the others. This work, which was not contemplated when the commission was established, was first undertaken at the instance of the American Fish Cultural Association, whoso representatives induced Congress to make a special appropriation for the purpose. This appropriation has since been renewed every year on a more bountiful scale, and propagation is at present by far the most extensive branch of the work of the commis- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 171 sion, both in respect of number of men employed and quantity of money expended. Although activity in this direction may be regarded in the light of applied rather than pure scientific work, it is particularly important to the biologist, since it affords opportunities for investigating many new problems in physiology and embryology. The origin of the commission, its purposes, ami methods of organiza- tion, having been described, it now remains to review the accomplished results of its work. In many departments, especlialy that of direct research, most efficient services have been rendered by volunteers ; in fact, a large share of what has been accomplished in biological and physical exploration is the result of unpaid labor on the part of some of the most skillful American specialists. Although it would be interest- ing to review the peculiar features of the work of each investigation, the limits of this paper will not allow me to do so, or even to mention them all by name. Since the important fisheries center in New England, the coast of this district has been the seat of the most active operations in marine research. For ten years the commission, with a party of specialists, has devoted the summer season to work at the shore, at various stations along the coast, from Connecticut to Nova Scotia. A suitable place having been selected, a temporary laboratory is fitted up with the necessary appliances for collection and study. In this are placed from ten to twenty tables, each occupied by an investigator, either an officer of the commission or a volunteer. From 1878 to 1879, important aid was rendered by the Secretary of the Navy, who detailed for this service a steamer to be used in dredging and trawling, and this year the steamer built expressly for the commissiou is employed in the same manner.* The regular routine of operations at a summer station includes all the various forms of activity known to naturalists — collecting along the shore, seining upon the beaches, setting traps for animals not otherwise to be obtained, and scraping with dredge and trawl the bottom of the sea, at depths as great as can be reached by a steamer in a trip of three days. In the laboratory are carried on the usual structural and sys- * The number of dredging and trawling stations on record is as follows: 1871. Wood's Holl 345 1872. Eastport, 200 by hand, 35 bv steamer 235 1S73. Portland 149 1874. Noank 223 1675. Wood's Holl 109 1877. Salem "1 Halifax ...~ I g~g 1878. Gloucester j 1879. Provincetown J Total in ronnd numbers 1,500 The number of seine hauls is about GOO. 172 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. tematic studies; the preparation of museum specimens and of reports. Since the organization of the commission, the deep-sea work and the investigation of invertebrate animals has been under the charge of Pro- fessor Verrill, who had for many years before the commission was estab- lished been studying independently the invertebrate fauna of New En- gland. In addition to what has been done at the summer station, more or less exhaustive investigations have been carried on by smaller parties on many parts of the coast and interior waters. The fauna of Grand Rapids, and other off-shore fishing grounds, has been partly explored. In 1872, 1873, and 1874, dredging was carried on from the Coast Survey steamer Bache, by Professor Packard and Mr. Cooke, Professor Smith, Mr. Harger, and Mr. Eathbun. In 1879 Mr. H. L. Osborn spent three months in a cod schooner collecting material on the Grand Banks, and Mr. N. P. Scudder as long a time on the halibut grounds of Davis' Straits. A most remarkable series of contributions have been received from the fishermen of Cape Ann. When the Fish Commission had its head- quarters at Gloucester, in 1878, a general interest in the zoloogical work sprang up among the crews of the fishing vessels, and since that time they have been vieing with each other in efforts to find new animals. Their activity has been stimulated by the publication of lists of their donations in the local papers, and the number of separate lots of speci- mens received, to the present time, exceeds eight hundred. Many of these lots are large, consisting of collecting-tanks full of alcoholic speci- mens. At least thirty fishing vessels now carry collecting-tanks on every trip, and many of the fishermen, with characteristic superstition, have the idea that it insures good look to have a tank on board, and will not go to sea without one. The number of specimens acquired in this manner is at least fifty or sixty thousand, most of them belonging to species unattainable. Each halibut vessel sets, twice daily, lines from ten to fourteen miles in length, with hooks upon them six feet apart, in water twelve hundred to eighteen hundred feet in depth, and the quantity of living forms brought up in this manner, and which had never hitherto been saved, is very astonishing. Over thirty species of fishes have thus been added to the fauna of North America, and Profes- sor Verrill informs me that the number of new and extra-liinital forms thus placed upon the list of invertebrates cannot be less than fifty. A permanent collector, Mr. Vinal 1ST. Edwards, has been employed at Wood's Holl and vicinity since 1871, and many remarkable forms have also been discovered by him. No dredging has yet been attempted by the commission south of Long Island, though much has been done in shore work, especially among the fishes, by special agents and friends of the commission, and by the parties stationed here and there in the work of fish culture. Mr. E. G. BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 173 Blackford, of Fulton Market, New York, by carefuFy watching the market slabs, has added at least ten species of fishes to the fauna of the United States. Mr. F. Mather is studying the fish of Long Island and the Sound. Dr. Yarrow, Mr. Earll, and others, have collected from Cape May to Key West. The Gulf States coast was explored last winter by a party conducted by Mr. Silas Stearns, who spent nine months in study- ing the food-fishes and apparatus for the census. The entire Pacific Coast has been scoured by Professor Jordan for the commission and the census, and the ichthyology of that region has been enriched by the discovery of sixty species new to the fauna, forty of them being new to science. A similar investigation on the great lakes has been carried over a period of several years by Mr. Milne* and Mr. Kumlien. The ichthyology of the rivers of the country has received much attention from the many experts employed by the commission in the fish-cultural work. In addition to these local studies may be mentioned the general explorations such as are now being carried on for the oyster, by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll and Mr. John A. Ryder, for the shad by Colonel McDonald, for the smelt and the Atlantic salmon by Mr. C. G. Atkins, and the quinnat salmon by Mr. Livingston Stone. A partial indication of what has been accomplished may be found in the number of species added to the various faunal lists. Take, for instance, the cephalopod mollusks of New England. In Professor Ver- rill's recently published monographs twenty species are mentioned, thirteen of which are new to science. Ten years ago only three were known. I am indebted to Professor Verrill for the following estimate of the number of species added within the past ten years to the fauna of New England, mainly by the agency of the Commission: Crustacea Pycnogonida ... Annelida Venues Mollusca Echinodermata . Anthozoa Tunicata Polyzoa r^rachiopoda Sponges Acalophao o a 1 105 5 67 a 5 193 10 238 a o a M o 298 15 305 20 50 5 10 Total in round numbers . 800 25 91 80 1,000 51 147 5 90 1,800 It is but just to say that many of these species were obtained by Pro- fessor Verrill in the course of his independent explorations in Maine and Connecticut previous to 1871. 174 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. A similar estimate for the fishes indicates the discovery of at least one hundred species on the Eastern Atlantic coast within ten years; half of these are new to science. Forty species have been added to the fauna north of Cape Cod; sixteen of these are new and have been found within three years; seventeen have been described as new from the Gulf of Mexico; sixty, and more, have been added upon the West coast. The results of the summers' campaigns are worked in winter in the Pea- body Museum of Yale College, under the direction of Professor Verrill, and by the specialists of the National Museum. One of the important features of the work is the preparation of life histories of the useful marine animals of the country, and great quanti- ties of material have been* accumulated relating to almost every species. A portion of this has been published, more or less complete biographical monographs having been printed on the bluefish, the scup, the menhaden, the salmon, and the whitefish, and others are nearly ready. Another monograph which may be referred to in this connection is that of Mr. Starbuck on the whale fishery, giving its history from the earliest settlement of North America. The temperature of the water in its relation to the movements of fish has from the first received special attention. Observations are made regularly during the summer work, and at the various hatching stations. At the instance of the Commissioner, an extensive series of obervations have for several years been made under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, at light-houses, light-ships, life-saving and signal stations, carefully chosen, along the whole coast. This year thirty or more fishing schooners and steamers are carrying thermometers to record temperatures upon the fishing grounds, a journal of the move- ments of the fish being kept at the same time. One practical result of the study of these observations has been the demonstration of the cause of the failure of the menhaden fisheries on the coast of Maine in 1870 — a failure on account of which nearly 2,000 persons were thrown out of employment. Another important series of investigations carried on by Commander Beardsley, of the Navy, shows the error of the ordinary manner of using the Casella-Miller deep-sea thermometer; still another series made by Dr.*Kidder, of the Navy, and to be carried out in future, had for its object the determination of the temperature of the blood of marine animals. Observations have also been made by Mr. Milner upon the influence of a change from sea water into fresh water and from fresh water into sea water upon the young of different fishes. Mr. II. J. Pice carried on series of studies upon the effect of cold in retarding the development of incubating fish eggs. A series of analyses have been made by Professor Atwater to deter- mine the chemical composition and nutritive value offish as compared with other articles of food. This investigation is still in progress. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 175 In connection with the work of fish-culture much attention has been paid to embryology. The breeding times and habits of nearly all of our fishes have been studied, and their relations to water temperatures. The einbryological history of a number of species, such as the cod, shad, alewife, salmon, smelt, Spanish mackerel, striped bass, white perch, and the oyster, have been obtained under the auspices of the commis- sion, by Messrs. Brooks, Ryder, Scheeffer, Rice, and others. The introduction of new species in water in which they were previously unknown is of special interest to the student of geographical distribution. Through the agency of the commission the German carp has already been placed in nearly every State and Territory, although the work of distribution has onlyjust begun, and the tench (Tinea vulgaris) and the golden orfe (Id us melanotics) have been acclimated; the shad has been successfully planted in the Mississippi Valley and on the coast of Cali- fornia, and the California salmon in the rivers of the Atlantic slope. The maraena, or lake whitefish, of Europe has been introduced into a lake of Wisconsin. It is not my purpose to speak of the great success in restocking with shad and salmon several rivers in which the supply was almost exhausted, and in planting the Schoodic salmon in numer- ous lakes. As an act of international courtesy California salmon have been successfully introduced into New Zealand and Germany. The propagation work has increased in importance from year to year, as may be seen by the constant increase in the amount of the annual appropria- tion. A review of the results of the labors of the commission in increasing the food supply of the country may be found in the annual reports, the rude appliances of fish-culture in use ten years ago have given way to scientifially devised apparatus, by which millions of eggs are hatched where thousands were, and the demonstration of the possibility of stock- ing rivers and lakes to any desired extent has been greatly strengthened. This work was for six years most efficiently directed by the late Mr. James W. Milner, and is now in charge of Maj. T. B. Ferguson, also commissioner for the State of Maryland, by whom has been devised the machinery for propagation on a gigantic scale, by the aid of steam, which is now so successfully in use. The investigation of the statistics and history of the fisheries has per- haps assumed greater proportion than was at first contemplated. One of the immediate causes of the establishment of the commission was the dissension between the line and net fishermen of Southern New England with reference to laws for the protection of the deteriorating fisheries of that region. The first work of Professor Baird, as Commissioner, was to investigate the causes of this deterioration, and the report of that year's work includes much statistical material. In the same year a zoological and statistical survey of the great lakes was accomplished, and various circulars were sent out in contemplation of the preparation of monographic reports upon the special branches of the fisheries, some of which have already been published. 17G BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. In 1877, the Commissioner and his staff were summoned to Halifax to serve as witnesses and experts before the Halifax Fishery Commission, then charged with the settlement of the amount of compensation to be paid by the United States for the privilege of participating in the fish- eries of the provinces. The information at that time available concern- ing the fisheries was found to be so slight and imperfect that a plan for systematic investigation of th esubject was arranged and partially under- taken. The work was carried on for two seasons with some financial aid from the Department of State. In 1879 an arrangement was made with the Superintendent of the Tenth Census, who agreed to bear a part of the expense of carrying out the scheme in full. Some thirty trained experts are now engaged in the preparation of a statistical report on the present state and the past history of the fisheries of the United States. This will be finished next year, but the subject will hereafter be contin- ued in monographs upon separate branches of the fisheries, such as the Halibut Fishery, the Mackerel Fishery, the Shad Fishery, the Cod Fishery, the Herring Fishery, the Smelt Fishery, and various others of less importance. Hundreds and even thousands of specimens of a single species are often obtained. After those for the National Museum have been selected, a great number of duplicates remain. These are identified, labeled and made up into sets for exchange with other museums and for distribution to schools and small museums. This is in accordance with the time- honored usage of the Smithsonian Institution, and is regarded as an important branch of the work. Several specialists are employed solely in making up these sets and in gathering material required for their completion. Within three years fifty sets of fishes in alcohol, including at least ten thousand specimens, have been sent out, and fifty sets of invertebrates, embracing one hundred and seventy-five species and two hundred and fifty thousand specimens. One hundred smaller sets of representative forms are intended for educational purposes, to be given to schools and academies, are now being prepared. The arrangement of the invertebrate duplicates is in the charge of Mr. Richard Eathbun; of the fishes, in that of Dr. T. H. Bean. Facilities have also been given to many institutions for making collections on their own behalf. Six annual reports have been published, with an aggregate of o,C50 pages. These cover the period from 1871 to 1878. Many ] tapers relat- ing to the work have been published elsewhere — particularly descriptions of new species and results of special fauna! exploration. AN EPITOME OF TTIE HISTORY OF THE COMMISSION. 1871. The Commissioner, with a party of zoologists, established the first summer station at Wood's noil, Mass., other assistants being engaged in a similar work at Cape Hatteras and the Great Lakes. He also BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 177 personally investigated the alleged decrease of the fisheries in Southern New England, taking the testimony of numerous witnesses. 1871'. This year the summer station was at Eastport, Me., particular attention being paid to the herring fisheries. The survey of the Great Lakes was continued. Dredging, under the direction of Professor Packard, was began on the off-shore bauks. At the instance of the American Fish Cultural Association, Congress requested the Commis- sioner to take charge of the work of multiplying valuable food-fishes throughout the country. Work was begun on the shad, salmon, and whitefisli, and the eggs of the European salmon were imported. 1873. The summer headquarters were fixed at Portland, Me. The oppor- tunities for research were greatly increased by the aid of the Secretary of the Navy, who granted the use of an eighty-ton steamer. Exploration in the outer waters between Mount Desert and Cape Cod were carried on in the United States Coast Survey steamer Bache. Operations in fish -culture were carried on upon an extensive scale. 1874-1875. In 1874 the zoological work centered at Noank, Conn. The attempt was made to introduce shad into Europe. In 1875 the station was for a second time at Wood's Holl, where a permanent seaside laboratory, with aquarium, was now established. The number of investigations this year were about twenty. The increase in the propagation work was proportionately much larger. 1S7G. This year the Commissioner was unable to take the fishes and useful invertebrates in behalf the commission field for fishery investigations, having been instructed to exhibit, in connection with the Philadelphia International Exhibition, the methods offish-culture and the American fisheries. Much, however, was accomplished by single investigators in various localities. The propagation work continued. This year the first carp were introduced from Germany. 1877. The field of investigation was resumed at Salem, Mass., and later at Halifax Nova Scotia. A larger steamer of 300 tons made deep-sea research possible. The Commissioner and his staff served as experts before the Halifax Fishery Commission. Tbe propagating work was on the increase, and the government carp ponds were established in Washington. 1878-1879. In 1878 the summer station was at Gloucester, Mass.; in 1879 at Provincetown. These centers of the fishing interests were selected that more attention might be devoted to studying the history, statistics, and Bull. IT. S. F. C, 82 12 Feb. 13, 1883. 178 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. methods of tbe sea fisheries. A plan for the systematic investigation which seemed yearly more necessary in view of the dissensions between the Governments of the United States and Great Britain. In 1870 a combination was formed with the Superintendent of the Tenth Census, by which the Commissioner was enabled to carry more rapidly forward this branch of the work. Specialists were dispatched to all parts of the country to study the biological, statistical, and practical aspects of the fisheries. In 1878 the breeding of cod and haddock was accomplished at Gloucester. In 1879 the propagation of the oyster was accomplished by co-operation with the Maryland Commission, under the direction of Major Ferguson, and the distribution of the carp throughout the country was begun. 1880. The summer station is at Xewport, R. I. The Fish Hawk, a steamer of 481 tons, constructed expressly for the work of the commission, lies at the wharf, now equipped for scientific research, later to be employed in the propagation of the sea fish, such as the cod and the mackerel. Over fift3 T investigations are in the field in the service of the commission. The season was opened by the participation of the commission in the International Exhibition at Berlin. The first-honor prize, the gift of the Emperor of Germany, was awarded to Professor Baird, not alone as an acknowledgement that the display of the United States was the most perfect and most imposing, but as a personal tribute to one who, in the words of the president of the Deutscher Fischerie Yerein, is regarded in Europe as the first fish-culturlist in the world. SCARCITY OF BLAi'KFISH I > THE MM III. By CIIAREE§ C. LESLIE. [Note. — In view of the immense and unusual abundance of the sea bass or black- nsb, Serranus atrarius, on the coast of Southern New England, tbe following note from Mr. C. C. Leslie to G. Brown Goode possesses much interest:] We have noticed for the past four or five years the scarcity of black- fish in the summer, and especially this summer. The smacks here have not made their expenses for the past two months. I have just seen Capt. S. M. Corker, one of our most expert blaekfish fishermen, who has been in the business for thirty years. He states that he has never seen them so scarce as they are, and that in former years they could catch enough to pay expenses during the summer. Captain Corker told me also, about the first of June, a vessel came into this port; her cap- tain reported that he sailed through acres of codfishes floating belly up between Eatteras and Cape Henry. The fishes were not dead, but very weak. Charleston, S. C, June 29, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 179 OBSERVATIONS ON Till] ABSORPTION OF THE YELK, THE FOOD, FEEDING, AND DEVELOPMENT OF E.TlliiSCYO FISHES, COITIPHISINtt SOME INVESTIGATIONS CONDUCTED AT THE CENTKAE HATCH. ERY, AlMIOltV BIILD1IVG, WASHINGTON, D. C, IN 1888. By JOHN A. KYDEK. I. — OBSERVATIONS ON THE MODE OF ABSORPTION OF THE YELK OF THE EMBRYO SHAD. The manner in which the yelk of fish ova is absorbed or incorporated into the body of the young fish, especially in those forms in which no vessels traverse the yelk bag', was for a long time a puzzle to me. The yelk in all cases diminishes in bulk progressively, not suddenly. This fact indicated that the process of absorption probably occupied a con- siderable time, and that if a careful watch was kept up it might possi- bly be that the observer would be rewarded by the discovery of the manner of its accomplishment. With this object in view, the writer carefully observed young shad which had but recently left the egg, and in which it was to be inferred that the blood was about to be developed. My reason for choosing this stage of development was this: I knew, for example, that in species in which there was a complex system of vessels traversing the surface of the yelk sac, the substance of the latter seemed to be absorbed by those same vessels in the form of corpuscles, which, as in the case of Tylosurus, were unquestionably derived from the store of protoplasmic matter embraced by the yelk bag. Aided as I was by previous observations, which led me to undertake the investi- gation, the result proved that I was right in my anticipations regarding the manner in which the yelk of the young shad was absorbed, and that the heart, practically the vascular system here, was one of the princi- pal agents in the process, notwithstanding the fact that no true vitel- line vessels are ever developed in this species. In order that the process may be made clear to the reader, I have represented the anterior portion of an embryo shad in the accompanying figure, in which the relation of the heart to the yelk is shown as dis- tinctly as possible. The sketch represents the head end of the embryo with the greater part of the yelk bag within the field of view, the whole being treated as a transparent object enlarged about 35 times. In or- der to understand the process of yelk absorption, to be hereafter de- scribed, it will be necessary for us to know the relation of the yelk to the rest of the embryo. The great mass of the yelk in the shad embryo at the present stage of development is composed of coarse, irregular masses of very clear protoplasmic matter, y. These irregular masses in turn seem to be separated from each other by a material which occupies the fine interstices between them. It, again, is a protoplasm optically different in character from that of the 180 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. masses which it envelops. The relation of the clear masses to the mesh work in which they are involved is shown in the figure. At the sur- face of the yelk mass, and next to the homogeneous wall yhy of the yelk sac proper, the clear masses become smaller, and in sections, if they may be implicitly trusted, they sometimes present the appearance of minute spheres or corpuscles. The immediate superficial envelope or covering' of the yelk sac yliy is homogeneous, both in the living em- bryo viewed as a transparent object, and also wlien examined in care- fully prepared sections. This superficial layer is different, again, in optical appearance from the clear masses and their matrix, already de- scribed, so that the organization of the yelk is found to be quite complex. This layer also covers the whole yelk, which is, therefore, truly a closed Explanation of figure. —Head and fore part of yelk sac of young shad, just batched, enlarged 35 times, y, clear yelk masses involved in a protoplasmic nieshwork j yhy, palish amber yelk hypoblast, -which forms the innermost covering of the yelk; from its anterior portion blood-cells arc observed to bo budding off into tho segmentation cavity c,- some are also noticed in the pericardial space p, and in the heart;,- pm, the posterior pericardial membrane joined to tho heart and fused with the external layers en a little way below j?m; i, intestine; nc, notochord ; t, rudiment of tongue, seen through the transparent walls of the checks ; m, mouth ; I, margin of upper lip ; br, brain ; ««, ear ; bf, breast fin ; 1ns. spinal cord. sac or vesicle. In color this yelk covering is palish amber, quite differ- ent from the clear body of the yelk, and at the anterior portion of the sac, it is usually thicker than at any other point. In fact, just behind the heart, which is inclosed in tin; space jt>, this superficial layer is often heaped up in the form of a conical prominence, thus becoming several times thicker at this point than at any other place. On the upper or dorsal aspect of the yelk vesicle there is a longitudinal depression or furrow, along which the superficial yelk envelope is depressed. In this depression lies the cylindrical fore-gut i, which, for the most part, after- wards becomes the oesophagus of the more advanced conditions of de- velopment. There is no connection of any kind between the intestine and the yelk sac at any time, such as has been described as connecting BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 181 the yolk and the intestine in some embryo sharks. The general form of the yelk vesicle, as may be seen in the figure, is ovoidal, slightly flattened on its upper side, with a depression or furrow traversing the flattened portion lengthwise. It is entirely surrounded, on all sides, by a spaee tilled with a serous fluid. At the anterior end of the yelk vesi ele this space, in the stage of development here described, is most ca- pacious, and comprises all that cavity marked by c between the posterior pericardial membrane j)>n and the yelk envelope yhy. This space c 1 have identified with the segmentation cavity, for reasons which it will not be necessary to present iu detail in this place. If the heart does not actually develop within this cavity, its immediate connection with this space is an incontestable fact. Practically the heart develops within it, as we have elsewhere described. In the cod (Gadus) the mesoblast from which the heart is developed lies upon this space, and as develop- ment proceeds each step of the heart's evolution maybe watched most sat- isfactorily. At most, the only separation between the pericardial space p and the heart is effected by the development of the posterior pericardial membrane pm, which is usually of extreme tenuity in the stage of de- velopment here described. In fact, I am not sure that the membrane pm may not be perforate, for the reason that blood corpuscles are almost always found iu the pericardial space at about this stage of development. In Tylosurus I am quite sure that the pericardial cavity is not shut off from connection with the homologue of c, because iu that genus it is crowded, in some stages, with blood corpuscles, which vibrate in unison with the pulsations of the heart in the fluid in which both are immersed. In the shad, as in other species, the membrane pm is continuous with the splanchnopleural or peritoneal layer. As the venous end of the heart, just above p, pulsates, the membrane pm is pulled back and forth by the action of pulsation. Moreover, the membrane pm is continuous with and joined to the venous end of the heart, just above p, and in front of c. Iu fact, the heart opens freely into the cavity c. Free com- munication is thus established between the cavity of the heart itself and the segmentation cavity, or the serous space which surrounds the yelk vesicle. We are now ready to comprehend in a measure the manner in which the material of the yelk is generally broken up into small spherules or corpuscles and sucked up out of the space e by the heart, and carried into the body of the embryo to be appropriated in the processes of further development. On the surface of the structureless membrane yhy care- ful observation will reveal the fact that minute spherical prominences are developed. If one will be content to observe patiently for a couple of hours, these bodies will finally be seen to free themselves from all further connection with yhy and to drop freely into the surrounding fluid. These corpuscles are quite colorless and present the irregular globular appearance of the white blood cells found in human blocd. Owingto their continual vibration iu the serous medium 182 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ill which they are found, on account of the persistent pulsation of the heart, I found it was impossible to ascertain whether they manifested any amoeboid movements or changes of form such as may be ob- served in the colorless blood cell. In the figure I have exaggerated the number visible at one time at this stage in order to show more clearly the steps of the process. In the embryo shad they are formed sparingly at first, but at a later period of development they become more plenti- ful. In TyJosurus they are, however, formed in such myriads at about this same stage that it would be quite impossible to count them, the serous fluid surrounding the heart being charged with vast numbers, which are in this instance, however, already reddish in color, which is not the case with the shad, where the red coloring matter of the blood appears to be developed at a later stage. It is a singular general truth that, in those species in which the pigmentation of the body takes place early or while the embryo is still within the eg ( ^, the blood cells become reddened much earlier than in those in which the pigmentation is delayed or retarded. In fact, it also appears to be generally true that the first lines of pigment cells are developed along the courses of the great blood vessels and in the neighborhood of specialized sensory organs. This, however, is leading us away from the subject in hand. As the yelk vesicle or sac diminishes in bulk it tends to become pointed ante- riorly. The external layer of the yelk yhy, which, as we saw, affords the material for new supplies of blood cells, becomes thickened ante- riorly, and sometimes even appears to be extended into a conical point directed towards the venous and open end of the heart. This would indicate that the yelk was being consumed from its anterior extremity. The anterior conical end of the yelk vesicle sometimes. presents a granu- lar, or rather corpuscular, appearance after two-thirds of the whole has been absorbed. This condition is in keeping with what we observed at an earlier stage, where, as in the figure, we saw the outer layer of the yelk gradually break up into corpuscles or spherules, which were taken up by the heart, although as yet there was no evidence of a complete circulation. Together with this diminution in the volume of the yelk vesicle, the membrane pm is drawn back, at its outer attached border, becoming more funnel shaped; into this infundibuliform backward pro- longation of the posterior pericardial membrane the conical anterior extremity of the yelk mass extends. Gradually the bulk of the yelk diminishes still more until it remains as a fusiform mass which is no longer prominent on the ventral side of the body pf the young fish. Meanwhile the liver of the young fish has been more developed and the portal vein makes its way over the dorsal aspect of the yelk towards the venous end of tin- heart. It appears probable thai what now re- mains of the yelk may be taken up in part by the portal vein, but of this I am not well assured, further than to state that the portal vessels or channels appear in part to traverse what was formerly the segmenta- tion cavil \ c. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 183 The peculiar, homogeneous protoplasmic wall of the yelk vesicle yhy persists to the last, as I have learned from sections prepared from em- bryos in which the yelk sac was almost entirely absorbed. It would therefore appear that the central clear portion of the yelk y was by degrees transformed into the superficial palish amber layer which forms the covering of the vesicle or sac. Of the forces at work in effecting this transformation, we know nothing more than of the efficient cause of development itself. Thus far we have discussed the absorption of only that part of the yelk which remained after the embryo shad had* left the egg. As we know that the volume of the embryo previous to hatching is greatly in excess of the volume of the germinal disk, it is fair to infer that in addi- tion to the mode of yelk absorption here described there must be another which will account for the growth of the embryo before its heart has developed enough to be an active agent in the process of yelk incorpo- ration. This second method of yelk absorption has been called intussus- ception, and is the primary or initial mode. It supposes that the em- bryo appropriates a part of the yelk during the early stages of develop- ment by a direct process of incorporation without the aid or interven- tion of a blood vascular apparatus, as rudimentary even as that which we have ascribed to the embryo shad. The body of the embryo, super- imposed as it is upon the yelk, is supposed to derive portions of mate- rial for further growth as these are needed from an " intermediary layer" (Van Bambeke), which probably corresponds to our palish amber yelk envelope which covers the clear yelk material in the shad. This layer, called the couche hcematogene by Vogt in his embryological history of Coregonus palcea, therefore appears to play an important part in the development of the blood at all stages both before and after the functional development of the heart. Under whatever name we know it, it is undoubted that in this layer a process of cell and blood-cell differentiation takes place. This statement is grounded on two sets of facts ; namely, the observation of free nuclei in this layer by embryol- ogists, and the undoubted circumstance of the origination of blood cells from its surface. Blood cells, especially white ones, are known to be nucleated, and no others are at first formed in the shad ; it therefore follows that the nucleation must occur in the layer here understood. Kupffer* has alluded to a similar process, but from what I have been able to gather from his writings he does not seem to have been clear in his understanding of the layer, confounding it with the true hypo- blast. This opinion I was also led to adopt in my essays on the Spanish mackerel and silver gar, but I am now in doubt whether this view can be justified. My main reason being that I have been unable to discover any evidence that the intestine of the shad origi- nates from this yelk envelope in sections prepared from such stages *Beobaclitungen liber die Eutwickelung tier Knocheufische. Arch, fiir Mik. Anat., iv, 1868. 184 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. as ought to have exhibited it. In fact, the tract from which the intes- tine originates is independent of this outer yelk wall from the first. The rudiment of the intestine, before the development of its internal cavity, is merely a flat band of cells somewhat thicker in the middle line than at its edges, and lies just below the tract in which the aorta and cardi- nal veins are afterwards excavated. Upon referring to some of my notes, bearing the date of February 27, 1882, in regard to tbe struct- ure of the yelk sac of the land-locked salmon, I find the following re- corded: "As to the structure of the yelk sac, in making a dissection of a lively embryo, in a neutral salt solution, the epithelial (epiblastic) layer was found to be quite free from the yelk, so that it could be stripped entirely off from the surface of the latter." It evidently was not continuous with the subjacent layer traversed by the complex blood-ves- sels of the yelk, but between the two there was an exceedingly thin ser- ous space. "On the ninth day after hatching, large numbers of red blood corpuscles were still found in the pericardiac space. Later, in diseased, or rather in what were probably injured specimens, numbers of which were kindly brought me by Mr. Fred Mather for study, I found large quantities of blood-cells in the serous space between the external or epiblastic and somatopleural covering of the sac and tbe vascular layer. In some cases the posterior portion of the former was abnor- mally much distended, so that a large cavity was developed." To con- tinue the reproduction of my notes, however, I further stated : " Beneath the outer layer and forming the inner wall of the serous space around the yelk, came the vascular hypo-blastie stratum in which the vitelline network of blood-vessels was developed. This, like the outermost layer, could be removed entire from the contained yelk. The seg- mentation cavity, with which I identify one of the serous spaces so resulting, may be either between the epiblast and vascular splanchno- pleural layer, or between the latter and the yelk." But the homologue of the segmentation cavity is probably the latter. Inside of the vas- cular layer I encountered the yelk vesicle proper, comparable with the palish amber layer of the shad. In its superficial portion I find the oil spheres immersed. This stratum in fact is the " couche hwmatogme" of Vogt, which is as well developed in the embryos of CoregonuH albus of our lakes as in the European species, studied by the versatile natu- ralist of Geneva. Here as in many other species there is a tendency of the blood channels to present the appearance of irregular wide passages over the yelk, somewhat lacunar in nature. This feature is observed, however, only in such as have a vitelline circulation, as, for example, in embryos of Apeltes, Tylositrm, Carassius, Itlus, Fundulus, Esox, Go- arces, Sabno, etc., and not in Alosa, Cybinm, Parephippus, Pomolobus, Gadus, which arc without a vitelline vascular system. But these two types run into each other, for in some the intestinal or portal or else the median subintestinal system of vessels may hereafter be found to take a share in the process of blood developmei t. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 185 I have elsewhere* alluded to the researches of Gensch,t who investi- gated the development of the blood of Zoarees and Esox. lie observes that the blood originates in these forms by budding from the hypoblast, and credits Kuplier with having been the first to call attention to the fact. I cannot help thinking, however, that what he means by the hypoblast is really the equivalent of the palish amber envelope of the yelk of the shad, and in no sense anything but a temporary and evanes- cent structure, which vanishes completely when the contained yelk mate- rial has been absorbed. It may be proper, perhaps, to designate this structure by the name of yelk hypoblast, but beyond the name it is doubtful whether it is proper to imply more, because I have yet to learn, after careful investigation, that it ever enters into the formation of any of the organs or membranes of the body cavity in which it is actually inclosed. Before concluding, however, I wish to call attention to one more differ- ence between the embryo of fishes with a vitelline circulation and those without it. Iu those forms in which the blood-vascular network cover- ing the yelk is well developed the hypo-blastic vascular layer is relatively thick and distinct in cross-sections. In those in which there is no vitel- line circulation the reverse is the case. When w r e come to examine cross- sections, the epiblast, mesoblast, and the true hypoblast are so intimately united and their combined thickness so slight that it is with great diffi- culty that they are resolved wdth the microscope. In the young shad, directly after hatching, the outer covering of the yelk is extremely thin, and measures about 5 0V0 °* an inch in thickness. Immediately beneath it and separate from it lies the homogeneous wall of the yelk vesicle. This structure, which we have chosen to call the yelk hypoblast above, is, on the contrary, often ten times as thick as the outer and external yelk envelope which comprises, as we saw, all of the embryonic layers, but which have been reduced to the greatest tenuity. From the foregoing recital of facts we are led to a somewhat clearer understanding of the method of yelk absorption as observed in young- fishes. We cannot help admiring the simplicity and efficiency of the apparatus. Whether the space identified by me as the segmentation cavity in fishes must be considered equivalent to the pleuroperitoneal space in the embryos of birds, I am unable to state ; this is, however, probable. Practically, there is very little difference between the mode of yelk absorption, as manifested in the chick and in the fish. If by a large license, as it seems to me, we admit that the yelk vesicle of the shad is really its hypoblast, the origin of the blood and the incorpora- tion of the yelk substance are similar in birds and fishes. In the latter the nature of the hypoblast may be so obscured that I may have fallen into error in not regarding the yelk wall as hypoblastic; however, that *Notes on the development, spinning kaliitsand structure of the four-spined stickle- back Apeltea quadroons. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, 1881, pp. 24-29. tDie Blutbilduug auf dem Dottersack bei Knockeurisclien. Arch, fur Mik. Anat., xix, pp. 134-136. 186 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. a structure which disappears so entirely as not to leave behind any organ which may be with certainty traced to it as its source of forma- tion, I am loath to regard as oue of the primary embry6nic layers. The yelk is entirely included within the abdominal cavity in hshes as soon as the blastoderm has closed over it. In this regard it widely differs from the chick, a point to be borne in mind in this discussion. The serous space around the yelk in the shad represents the body cavity. Look- ing again, during the present writing, at sections made from embryos shortly after the inclusion of the yelk by the blastoderm, I am convinced more forcibly than ever of the correctness of the view herein maintained. I cannot persuade myself, even while examining this early stage, that the yet thin and incipient yelk wall is continuous, or likely to have, been with any of the embryonic layers, except during the very earliest stages of development and before the differentiation of the layers. The yelk hypoblast, therefore, has only a physiological and mechanical function to perform, which ends with the final and complete absorption of the yelk out of the serous abdominal cavity. Immediately after the heart is formed, as soon as it begins to pulsate, and long before hatching, it seems to open directly into the serous cav- ity already described. In this condition and even much later it seems to the observer almost like an independent being within the embryo, sucking up the yelk; an appearance which, at this time, is of course illusive, as the breaking down of the yelk by the help of germination and the circulation probably does not begin until about the time the embryo is free from the egg. Previous to tbat time the appropriation of the yelk material probably goes on by intussusception, as already mentioned. The communication of the heart with the serous cavity surroundiugtheyelk, as stated before, is direct, but as soon as the Ouvi- erian ducts are developed, its venous end is almost entirely fed by them from the cardinal veins, the serous cavity in front of the yelk only com- municating imperfectly with the heart. In four or live days the hulk of the yelk is absorbed, some remnants of it sometimes remaining for a long time afterwards, or up to tin' tenth day or even later. The rate of j T elk absorption is profoundly influenced by temperature, which is no more than was to \te expected. The diminution in the bulk of the yelk is accompanied by a gradual collapse of the outer sac, the diminution of the capacity of one seem- ing t» keep pace with that of the other. This is the case with the shad, and in fact with most embryo hshes. The most notable exception to this rule being the very remarkable phenomena first observed by the writer in the embryos of Cybium and Parephippus, where the collapse of the yelk mass in its vesicle, as absorption goes on. is not followed by an immediate and equivalent diminution of the capacity of the external sac. It follows from this state of affairs, in these species, that the se- rous cavity around the yelk becomes remarkably enlarged. The ques- tion, then, also arises, how does the extra water lind its way into this BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 187 serous space, unless by a purely physical process of transudation, or osmosis of water from without, which keeps pace with the collapse of the yelk, the absorbed water taking the place of the latter as it dimin- ishes iu volume? II. — NOTICE OF AN EXTRAORDINARY HYBRID BETWEEN THE SHAD AND STRIPED BASS. A number of young fish which had already lost their yelk sacs, in consequence of which it is to be supposed that they were already several days old, were received from Havre de Grace at the central station on the evening of June 13. They were immediately placed in an aqua- rium, but many of them died in a day or two after, save about fifty which were transferred by the writer to one of the smaller of the carp ponds in charge of Dr. Kudolph Hessel, where, as Professor Baird had suggested, they might possibly find some food suited to their wants and grow large enough for us to learn something of their future history. The case is an extraordinary one, as the possibility of interbreeding mem- bers of such very distinct families as that of the Clupeoids and Percoids, unless the impregnation took place under the very eyes of the naturalist, might well be doubted, as even such a thing as the successful impregna- tion of the ova would naturally be doubted by those familiar with the recorded facts related of hybrids in general. The evidence in favor of the fact in this case is, however, too strong to be passed over, and until we know more of the later history of this singular hybrid, the follow- ing notes on the differences which were presented by the embryos as compared with those of the true shad must suffice. The striped bass was the male and the shad the female parent. Teeth more numerous and more hooked on the lower jaw; at least three pairs, only two pairs in shad of same age. Lower jaw itself longer, with gape of mouth much wider ; ear capsule proportionally much larger than in shad larvae of same age, and otoliths much larger. Tail a little more fan-shaped than in shad of same age, and pigment and fine cellular radii of fins slightly more developed than in the latter. Intestine much more slender, that is, its lumen is much less spacious than in Alosa or Clupea. Liver in about the same position as in larval Alosa, but gall- bladder and eye relatively and perceptibly larger; Meckel's cartilage a fourth longer. General iorm that of the larval Alosa, but head more prolonged and acuminate anteriorly. The preponderance of characters appears to be towards the female parent, and appears to be an undoubted hybrid. The eggs were taken by some of the crew of the steamer Fish- hawk, at Havre de Grace, and were impregnated with the milt of the ''rock" or striped bass, because no ripe shad milters happened to be at hand. 188 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. III. — CAUSE OF THE NON-DEVELOPMENT OF FUNDUS ON THE EGOS HATCHED IN THE MCDONALD JAR. The development of fungus on shad eggs, as far as we are able to judge, has always been due to the conditions under which they were placed. When any imperfection existed in the current of water flowing through the cones, the eggs which would collect on some spot on the bottom screen which had been partially choked up with sediment, caused both dead and live eggs to collect in a mass over such places. The fungus, on account of its very rapid development, when once started amongst such lots of eggs, would soon mat them together in large masses, which had to be removed with the small " skim net." The absence of any cur- rent amongst masses of ova seems to be the one favoring condition un- der which the egg-fungus grows most advantageously. The mycelium, once established on the membranes of a lot of eggs, soon attacks those which some movement may bring into contiguity with those already in- fested. The plant possesses all the features of a parasite converting the material of the egg into its own substance. Its reproductive activi- ties are also developed very early, and its germs are produced in vast numbers, which are very minute motile bodies which escape from their receptacles on the parent plant to pollute the surrounding water. It is easy on this account to understand that any apparatus from which it is impossible to effectually remove dead eggs, and in which there is an imperfect circulation of water amongst the latter, would favor the de- velopment of fungus and the destruction of many ova. Formerly the Bell and Mather cone was disposed, if not carefully watched, to favor the development of fungus. Eecently thisobjectionablefeatureseemstohave been overcome to a certain extent. No " cone " yet devised is, however, as good as any one of three different forms of glass apparatus; the Chase, the Clark, or the McDonald jar offer advantages over any form of metal apparatus. These systems of glass-hatching vessels can be kept so thoroughly free from dead eggs without a skim net, and the circula- tion can be so perfectly regulated so as to keep every egg in continuous movement, thus preventing any fungus spores from lodging on the eggs. The continuous and gentle attrition of the ova in the glass jars effectu- ally prevents any fungoid germs from adhering to the membranes of the ova; the pest, which is in this way prevented from obtaining a foot- hold, never causes any serious trouble. Another advantage offered by the glass jars is the ease and accuracy with which the number of eggs may be estimated by graduating the jar into inches or into intervals indicating the spaces occupied by sin- gle thousands of eggs, or by measuring the height of the column of eggs in the jar with a graduated rule indicating similar quantities. This also enables the person in charge to estimate very closely the num- ber of dead eggs which accumulate on the surface of the live ones in a layer of nearly even thickness. This is impossible in the metal cones, and the estimate of losses has hitherto been little better than guess- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 18$ work. Ill the glass vessels the estimate is very nearly accurate and very easily made. In hatching white perch or other adhesive eggs, if the strings with ova adhering to them were hung into the McDonald jar, into which a quantity of shad ova had also been introduced, I think it altogether probable that the attrition of the shad eggs against the perch eggs would prevent the latter from becoming infested. The shad ova in their rolling movements over the others would tend to prevent the lodgment of fungus spores, as already pointed out in my discussion of shad ova. In the English edition of Maout and Decaisne's Botany, p. 975, I find the following account of the egg fungus or alga as it is indifferently called by different authorities. In order to disseminate a fuller knowl- edge of its life history I will here reproduce what these distinguished writers say of it : " These singular vegetables are considered to be fungi by some botanists ; they live, in fact, on organic matters in a state of decomposition in water, where they act upon oxide of iron by decomposing the carbonic acid, absorbing the oxygen, and thus setting free the sulphuretted hy- drogen, which destroys the vegetables or animals near it. [This indi- cates the great importance of at once removing from the hatching ves- sels any masses of fish ova which have become infested.] Notwith- standing the significance of these biological phenomena, several phy- siologists who have carefully studied Baprolegniecc do not hesitate to class them amongst Algae. ' Saprolegnia feraxf says Thuret, ' is usu- ally found on the bodies of drowned animals, which it covers with a whitish down ; it even attacks live fish. Nothing is easier than to pro- cure this singular Alga. Let a vase be filled with water from a garden tub, and some flies be thrown into it, and it will usually be developed in a few days. The body of the fly becomes covered with hyaline fila- ments, which radiate around it, enveloping it with a whitish zone. Un- der a miscroscope, these filaments are seen to be continuous, simple, or scarcely branched, and to contain minute granules, which show a mo- tion resembling that which is seen in the hairs of Phoeuogams. These granules are very numerous, especially towards the upper extremity of the tube, to which they give a gray, somewhat russet tint. This portion soon becomes isolated from the rest of the filament by the formation of a diaphragm. Then the contained matter coagulates in small masses, which become more and more sharply defined, and end by forming so many zoospores. These phenomena succeed each other very rapidly ; often in less than an hour the granular matter becomes condensed at the top of the filament, the septum forms, and the zoospores appear. Finally the tube, which has a small protuberance at its extremity, bursts there, and the zoospores escape, the first with impetuosity, the others more slowly ; they are turbinate in shape, and furnished with two hairs. This is not the only mode of reproduction possessed by Saprolegnia ; another phenomenon succeeds. The filaments emit small 190 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. lateral branches, the extremities of which swell into sacs of a black- ish hue, due to the condensation of their granular contents. Soon a septum forms, isolating the sacs from the little tubes which serve as pedicels to them. After some time the granular matter divides into several masses, which at first adhere to the walls of the sac, but which later become free and spherical. Sometimes there is only one of these masses ; sometimes the same sac contains fifteen or twenty. 1 have fancied that I could recognize on their periphery little mamillce resem- bling regularly arranged opercula.' The sacs have been termed by Pringsheim oosporangia. The oosporangia require fertilization to enable them to produce fertile spores. It is obvious, therefore, that Saprolag- niece have a double mode of reproduction, similar to that of Vaucheria; the one asexual by means of zoospores; the other sexual, producing oogonia arising from the fertilization of a sporangium {oosporangium)? The tubes alluded to in the first portion of this quotation, when de- veloped on the surface of a dead shad-egg, stand out in all directions like a vast number of rays; to make a vivid comparison, the infested egg looks very like a seed-head of the common dandelion, with all of its slight, tufted seeds still adherent to the receptacle. The zoospores alluded to as possessing two hairs or filaments have these latter en- dowed with a power of movement; these filaments in turn propel the body of the spore about, so that in this way the noxious germs of the plants are widely distributed through the water. IV. — EXPERIMENTS WITH CARBOLK! ACID TO KILL THE FUNGUS ON LARGE FISHES. Several hybrid gold-fish in the aquaria in the central station became badly infested with fungus, probably because too large a quantity of dead shad-eggs was thrown into the water to serve for their food, which, instead of being immediately consumed, remained lying on the bottom of the tank until the fruiting condition of the egg fungus was developed on them. These spores from the egg fungus then lodged upon the skin of the fishes and commenced to grow, showing the mode in which the fungoid infection might be conveyed from the egg^ to the adult fish. Knowing the fungicidal properties of carbolic acid, it occurred to me to try a very weak solution in water to see if it would kill the fun- gus on the fish. A badly infested fish was placed in a glass aquarium holding nearly four gallons of water; in the first trial ten drops of a concentrated No. 4 solution of carbolic acid was dropped into the water, with little more effect than to make the fish exceedingly restless. The next trial was made by doubling the quantity of acid used, which in the course of ten minutes showed that the fish was suffering and would probably die if fresh water was not immediately turned into the aqua- rium to replace that in which the acid had been dissolved. In a day or so afterwards the fish experimented upon died from the inroads of BULLETIN. OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 191 die fungus, showing apparently tbat the acid was not the cause of its death. Mr. Livingston Stone has recommended the use of a strong solution of common salt to kill fungus, which he has found quite effectual. Mr. Behler, of the Druid Hill hatching house, says a saturated solution of salt water is effectual; and he also states that if young salmon infested with the fungus are dipped bodily into asphalt, the fungus will be killed and the young fish come out all right and healthy, the asphalt gradually peeling off of their bodies. This last statement seems almo.-t incredible, but it has been stated to me in good faith by the experimenter himself. y. DISTURBANCE OF THE BALANCE OF CONDITIONS, AND ITS INFLU- ENCE ON THE CRUSTACEAN FOOD OF THE SHAD. In conducting the experiment of feeding the young shad, vast num- bers of minute Daphnida? were caught, which were put in the glass aquaria with the young fish; sometimes the number of these minute crustaceans captured at one time was so great that when closely packed they would almost equal a solid quart in bulk. Great mortality was no- ticed among them soon after beiug placed in the aquarium with the fish, which would indicate that they had been subjected to a fatal change of surroundings. Various reasons might be assigned as prob- able causes of this mortality. It may be that the rapid circulation of water in the aquarium was one of them, or it may be supposed that when taken from the stagnant water of the carp pouds and transferred to water of a considerably lower temperature in the hatching house the change was too great. A still more probable cause may be the fact that the crustaceans, when removed from amongst the water plants in the pond, were deprived of their natural food, and as a result starved to death. Whatever may have been the cause of this phenomenon, however, we may be assured of this fact, that in supplying live food to shad larva? we must also be careful to attend to the vital conditions required by the former. If it is desired to keep this liviug food in a healthy state, so as to multiply in the aquaria, it is probable that water plants must be supplied for the purpose of furnishing the requisite conditions for the l>rotection and multiplication of the food of the living shad-food. Un- til recently we have not been able to supply quite the proper conditions for the nutrition of the young shad, and in feeding the latter it becomes evident that we must take care to feed the food, which may be done by providing the conditions for the propagation of protozoa, alga?, &c, in the aquaria or shad nurseries. VI. — A MEANS OF DEMONSTRATING- CARTILAGE IN FISH EMBRYOS. Knowing the potency of potassic hydrate in dissolving protoplasm, it occurred to me to try its efficiency as a means of getting rid of the tis- sues and membranes which envelop the trabecule cranii, hyoid, and 192 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. branchial cartilages of the shad. A 5 per cent, solution it was found would rapidly dissolve the dermal, neural * and muscular tissues, leav- ing only the rudimentary, aponeurotic membranes and matrices of fasciae between the muscular segments and the notochordal sheath. The head cartilages remained undestroyed and could afterwards be stained. The method is useful, however, only where fresh material is at hand, as it is almost impossible to mount a specimen satisfactorily for permanent prep- aration. In staining, it is desirable to wash out the alkali as much as possible, and afterwards to investigate the arrangement of the cartilages of the skeleton under gentle pressure under a Fol's compressor. VII.— METHODS OF HANDLING WHITE PERCH OVA. The egg of the white perch is notoriously adhesive, and for this reason is one of the most troublesome to deal with practically. The eggs were taken upon cotton yarn, which was drawn up through a funnel, into which the eggs aud milt had been squeezed from the spawning fish. The cord, covered with the adhering eggs, was then wrapped upon a wooden reel and sent under cover of damp cloths to the central station, where they arrived in fine condition, almost every egg being impregnated. This system, devised and carried out under the superintendence of Colonel McDonald, was really another adaptation of the dry method of carrying the ova of the shad. After reaching the central station, the cotton cord, with the adhering eggs, was cut iuto lengths of 10 to 12 inches and suspended in the glass hatching jars. The development progressed normally as long as not interfered with by the growth of Baprolegnious fungus. There being no attrition between eggs, as amongst shad ova, when incubated in the jar, fungus soon established itself, and grew until 'the whole brood was practically destroyed. Another mode was to introduce the wooden reel, with the eggs adhering to the cord, into a wide aquarium. These also were attacked by fungus, but slightly more favorable results were ob- tained. With the water at 5S° F. to 00° F., the ova hatched out in six days. The water in the jars, for some of the time, stood at 51° to 55° F. ? and rose but little above this point. The use of narrow strips of glass or mica might, it seems to the writer, be used to advantage, or even glass plates would be convenient, upon which the eggs might be allowed to adhere. It was discovered this spring by the writer that where the eggs were allowed to stick to the string in several layers, the uppermost strata seemed to smother or prevent the respiration of the lowermost layers, which were killed in consequence. This is opposed to the experience of Mr. Clark with the Atlantic herring, and also to thatof Oapt. Z. L. Tanner with the Branch herring. Both of these experimenters found that great masses of the eggs would hatch with scarcely any loss, although it was scarcely pos- sible to understand how it was possible that there should be any circu- lation of fresh water through such large clumps of adherent ova. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 193 The nature and origin of the material by which adherent ova are made to stick fast to foreign bodies and to each other is an interesting inquiry. It appears to be a mucous substance, derived, possibly, as a peculiar secretion either from the ovarian follicles or some special gland- ular structures within the ovary. Its remarkable property of harden- ing under water I find to be characteristic of the material in all the species with adhesive ova which I have yet had the opportunity of ex- amining. VIII. — NOTES ON SMALL FISHES AND WATER ANIMALS WHICH PREY ON FISH LARV^). Eecently (June 1882) some four-spined sticklebacks (Apeltes quadra- cus) in spawning condition were received at the Central or Armory hatching station of the United States Fish Commission from Mr. W. P. Seal, of Philadelphia, who, in his letter announcing their shipment, in- formed me that they would not accept dead food, but must be supplied with small living insect or crustacean prey, which they would themselves capture. The specimens were mostly males, and would measure an inch and three-eighths in length ; some were smaller. Mr. Seal's opinion as to their feeding habits was soon verified, as it was found that dead food had not the slightest attraction for them, but as soon as live food was offered them they exhibited a vivacity and alertness in its capture which was truly surprising. I obtained a supply of this from the government carp ponds by skimming the surface of the water amongst a rank growth of aquatic plants with a fine net, where it was found that DapMniidw, neuropterous, and coleopterous larvae abounded, as well as numerous brown aphides, which had blown on to the surface of the water from the taller plants fringing the pond. These creatures were transferred to the aquarium containing the sticklebacks, when the work of destruction was at once commenced. The lively little ichthian marauders would poise themselves in the water, roll their eyes, and when one of their vic- tims was within sure range they would pounce upon it, rarely missing their mark, in spite of the fact that the latter, as in the case of the Daphnids, might happen to be quite minute. Hard-shelled coleoptera and bugs were not accepted, nor did the larger neuroptera seem to attract their serious attention. The smaller, softer-bodied animals seemed to be most palatable. Upon observing this, it occurred to me to try them upon shad larvae. About twenty-five of these, three days old, were then put into the jar ; no sooner than they had made themselves conspicuous by their active wriggling movements through the water, the keen eyes of the sticklebacks perceived them; their destruction was completed in about half an hour by the half-dozen individuals of Apeltes. The experi- ment was repeated with a similar result, showing the destructive capac- ities of Apeltes when brought to bear upon helpless shad larvae. Gunther has noticed the voracity of Gasterosteus in his " Study of Fishes." It has been maintained by some writers that fish larvae, which in the Bull. U. S. F. C, 82-1-13 March 14, 18 83. 194 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. case of many species are very transparent, are protected by this trans- parency, which renders them to a great extent invisible in water. The transparency of the larval shad is notorious, and with the exception of the glittering iris and two dark lines of pigment cells above and below the intestine, would be almost invisible in the water; yet it is evident from our experience that this transparency affords little or no prtection from so sharp-sighted an enemy as the stickleback. And if it could be shown that one stickleback under natural conditions could devour a dozen shad larvae in an hour in the weedy flats of rivers, where the natu- rally spawned young of Alosa may be supposed to abound, the destruc- tion of such larvae during a season must be enormous in respect of num- bers. The foregoing observations tend to show, it would appear to the writer, that the transparency of larval fishes is practically of no avail in the presence of the predaceous species of their own class. If shad larvae are visible to sticklebacks, there is no valid reason why they should not be equally so to young predaceous fishes of a dozen other species, and if, as we may suppose with good reason, not unsupported by obser- vation, that young fishes will be attracted to weedy flats on account of the insect prey which there abounds, we may be almost equally certain that any very young fish larvae, although still transparent, will not es- cape the vigilant eyes of their finny enemies, and consequent destruc- tion. The larvae of many neuropterous insects which undergo their trans- formations in water, as well as those of certain coleoptera, such as Dytis- cus, are noted for their predaceous habits. I have seen the larvae of the dragon-fly capture and devour a young salamander almost or quite as large as itself. These gourmands of both the neuropterous and coleopter- ous order are probably not excelled in rapacity by any small fishes, though their rapidity of movement is probably not as great as that of the latter. Now as to the facts of the case, I find upon trial that both neuropterous and coleopterous larvae are capable of destroying young shad, but to what extent I am not assured, as a sufficient number of observations are wanting. The main point at which we have been aiming is, however, clear. Transparency is no safeguard from either active vertebrate or inverte- brate enemies, and now the question arises as to the point already urged in a former paper by the writer, as to the expediency of setting shad larvae free in weedy shallows in rivers where it is found that their nat- ural food abounds, together with their enemies. The only answer that seems possible under the conditions as we now know them is the fol- lowing : That it is best to put the larvae where they will soonest find food, although they be at the same time brought iuto the presence of the greatest number of enemies. The chances of survival seem to me to be greater where the food is most abundant, for the following reason : Notwithstand- ing the fact that many enemies may be present, the chances to obtain food in such places are so much more favorable, so that the growth and BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 195 vigor of the larvae will be soonest enhanced, thus enabling them to grow faster, become more vigorous, and the more readily able to escape their enemies. IX. — OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF THE YOUNG JAPANESE GOLD- FISHES. Professor Baird, noticing that the young fish in the carp ponds ap- peared to be feeding very actively upon something, requested me to in- vestigate the contents of their stomachs and intestines. On the 6th of June I opened a specimen 30 millimeters long, in the intestine of which I found the following: Dirt and particles of quartz- sand: Branchiopoda. Lynceus. Daplmia. Ostracoda. Cypris. Ehizopods. Arcella. Cyphoderia. Eotifers, tests of. Statoplasts of polyzoa. Desmids, several species. Oopepoda; Cyclops, Canthocamptus. Woody and vascular vegetable tissue, with spiral bands in the cellular walls. Cellulose membranes of the cells of the leaves of Anacharis and Lemna, &c, some still containing chlorophyl, rendering the color of the intestinal contents green. Pine pollen. Filaments of Spirogyra. Palmellaceous algae. Diatoms. In the stomach of the same specimen I found the following: Green spores of algae; some in the zoogloear condition. Spirogyra. Chitinous remains of dipterous larvae. Cyclops, Baplinice, &c. Eotifers. Also a minute six-legged mite-like creature. Stellate hairs from the leaves of some tree in the vicinity. In another specimen, besides the foregoing, I found the following : Siliceous spicules of a fresh-water sponge. Oscillatoriae. Ova of Daphnids. Hair. 196 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. In still another specimen I found both the dermal and flesh spicules of a fresh -water sponge and the remains of a portion of a tracheal tube of an insect. A more exhaustive examination of the fish, which I did not care to sacrifice to any great extent, would have shown that in feeding they had probably laid the entire fauna and flora of the pond under contri- bution; at any rate, the foregoing list shows that there was no want of variety in the make-up of the bill of fare consumed by these young Cyp- rinoids. \ X. — EXPERIMENTS IN SUPPLYING THE PROPER FOOD FOR LARVAL SHAD. It was suggested to me by Professor Baird in 1880 to try to discover the kind of food upon which the young shad normally feeds, and if pos- sible to collect or breed the food in quantities large enough to afford a supply of nutriment for the larvae. My investigations upon the intes- tinal contents of the adults during that season taught me approxi- mately what I might expect to find to be the food of the young. Inves- tigations which I conducted in the latter part of the season of 1880, upon the young which had been kept for fourteen days at the navy- yard at Washington by Mr. F. K. Clark, showed that my surmises had been correct. As already discussed in my paper, published in this Bulletin, entitled "On the Protozoa and Protophytes as the Primitive Source of the Food of Fishes," the young shad, under favorable conditions, soon prey upon other minute organisms. The mouth is not open widely enough immediately after hatching to take food, nor can the mouth be opened and closed at this time, but by the time the yelk sac is fairly absorbed, or in four to five days after hatching, the young fish will al- ready take food, as observed by us this season in the aquaria at the central station. At first the mouth is on the under side of the head, and it is only after the jaws and gill-arches have grown longer that the mouth is widely enough open to seize food with the four conical, hooked teeth with which the lower jaw is armed; this condition of development is attained when the yelk sac has been mostly absorbed. It was a problem with me for some time as to how the food of the young shad, which consists mostly of Copepoda, Ostracoda, &c, was to be got in sufficient quantity to make artificial feeding a success. Knowing the favorable conditions which existed in the carp ponds in Washington for the multiplication of these crustaceans, I took a fine net to the ponds and found a locality where I could skim them out from water, amongst dense growths of Anacharis, by the many thousands. The skimming was continued until a large number of Copepoda and Daplmiidoe were obtained, which were turned out amongst the young- fish into the collectors used by Colonel McDonald in connection with his hatching-jar. The young shad in the collector aquarium, having vast numbers of their favorite food all about them, which could not escape BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 197 on account of a fine screen which was placed over the outlet from the collector, soon began to feed. In a half hour afterwards, I should think fully ten per cent, of the young fish which had already lost their sacs had begun to feed. The evidence of this was the presence of their crus- tacean food in the intestine, in which it could be readily seen with the naked eye through the transparent walls of the abdomen. It would tend to accumulate just behind the origin of the liver and air-bladder, which marks the origin of the larval stomach. These experiments were instituted on the 11th day of June, and daily supplies of Copepoda were afterwards sent to the Arm ory by Dr. Hessel from the carp ponds, where the latter gentleman also found other locali- ties where these crustaceans were still more abundant than those origi- nally visited by me. The mortality amongst the young fish, even in the presence of their natural food, was very great — not less than 75 per cent. ; but it was shown that it would be practicable to furnish the required food, and as I hear since I left Washington, from Colonel McDonald, the young fish continue to feed, growing rapidly and giving every prom- ise of surviving until an advanced condition of growth is reached. Some of these young shad, according to my last advices from the central sta- tion, must now, July 6, be nearly a month old. Since the above was written some time has elapsed, and the survivors of the lot of young shad which gave such promise of continuing to grow have either been captured for preservation in alcohol or have escaped from the aquarium in which they were confined. The last surviving specimen of the lot lived to be forty-two days old, when it accidentally escaped into the sewer-pipe before it was possible to recover it. Those in charge at the time inform me that this individual was about one and a quarter inches in length at the time of its escape. This would be about the length it would have reached at the age mentioned above, judging from some specimens which were submitted to me for examina- tion from North Carolina ; these having had the good fortune to survive to the age of three weeks, when they measured 22 millimeters long, or about seven-eighths of an inch. The Armory specimens, I am told by Mr. J. E. Brown, fed quite ravenously upon the living Copepoda, which were supplied to them to the last. XI MECHANICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING: THE DEVELOPMENT OF FISH OVA. There is a class of facts met with in embryological observations which have a significance which, I think, have not received the attention they deserve. They relate more especially to what may be termed the mech- anism or construction of ova, and to the peculiarities of development which grow out of conditions of construction as necessary results thereof. Holoblastic ova, for instance, are very differently conditioned from the mesoblastic. Practically, we can scarcely say of the former type that it ever develops a blastoderm, but rather that the whole of it at 198 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. once becomes blastodermic in morphological character. Nor do holo- blastic ova even behave similarly to each other. Even in the progress of development the gastrula stage is sometimes so modified or interfered with by the mechanical accidents of the construction of the ovum as to be almost wholly obscured or suppressed. Such occurs in a few cases like Eucope and Stepkanomia, where a gastric cavity is formed without gastrulation before the oral opening is broken through, so that the fact of gastrulation is not universally a preliminary to the formation of the archenteric cavity; formerly, in its positive form, an embryological doctrine which observed facts have shown to be untenable when uni- versally applied. Again, it is certain that the blastopore which results from the closure of the outermost layers of the ovum over the innermost ones, or over the yelk, does not always correspond either to stomodeum or proctodeum, or to mouth or vent, but that it is sometimes an evanes- cent structure of little or no morphological significance. This is the case with what is probably the true blastopore of the Teleostean ovum. The mechanical relation of germ disk or blastoderm to the yelk in the Teleostean ovum is a peculiar one and has not hitherto received the atten- tion which its importance has deserved. The peculiar mode of devel- opment which has grown out of this relation is in the highest degree interesting as compared with other forms. After the disk has been formed by the ainseboid aggregation of the germinal protoplasm, a series of phenomena present themselves during segmentation which will well repay attention. As soon as the segmentation is fairly under way, so that t lie rudiment of the embryo's axis begins to be apparent at the edge of the blastoderm, it is found that a shallow, crescent-shaped cavity has ap- peared underneath the central portion of the disk not immediately em- braced by the embryo. This space extends beneath the blastoderm and grows laterally with the growth of the disk. It is, in fact, a space filled with a film of fluid over which the disk may spread without friction on the underlying yelk. It remains until the blastoderm finally closes over the yelk entirely, when it may still be seen as a space, in some species sep- arating the membranes of the embryo all round from the true yelk sac within. This arrangement, of course, causes the development to present some peculiar features, since the development of the embryo is perfectly sessile on the yelk. Later on, the heart communicates directly with this cavity, as in Alosa and Pomolob us, and yelk corpuscles are budded off directly into it and sucked up by the heart, to be carried directly into the vascular system. Nor is this the only feature of novelty ; at the tail, the rim of the blastoderm closes and forms what I have denominated tin- caudal plale, which afterwards enters into the development of the tail. The whole of the blastodermic rim (ringwulst) is thus absorbed, and no similarity remains to make the Teleostean embryo comparable in this respect with the Elasmobranch, in which the rim of the blastoderm is not incorporated in this manner. In the region of the caudal plate a solid neural cord or rod is continuous with the notochord and rudiment BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 199 of the hind-gut below, so that the gastrula is practically but obscurely realized by means of a strand of cells which connects the neurula and hind-gut. From Balfour's account I infer that the development ofLepi- dosteus is essentially similar. The hind-gut develops from behind for- wards, and almost immediately after the tail commences to bud out the vent appears beneath the latter. The gut has absolutely no connection in any part with the yelk-sac, and the liver appears as an enteric thicken- ing at first, and afterwards as a ventral diverticulum of the intestine, lying upon the upper and hinder aspect of the yelk. The air-bladder is a dorsal outgrowth of the intestine, which originates a little way behind the origin of the liver, from what may be termed the anterior duodenal region. The heart develops as a simple tube in the pericardiac region, and almost from the first communicates with the segmentation cavity. The body up to the time of the closure of the blastoderm grows from behind forwards from the edge of the latter, adding somite to somite behind with the progress of development. In some cases the rim of the blastoderm commences to segment into muscular somites even before the closure of the blastoderm. Comparing this form of development with that of the Amphibian and JMarsipobranch, we find that we are forced to look upon the blastoderm of the Teleost, exclusive to the yelk, as their complete morphological equivalent, and that the Marsipob ranch justifies the comparison in the peculiar way in which the body of the latter grows from behind for- wards out of the caudal mass, just as the embryo Teleost grows from behind forwards from the edge of the blastoderm ; so that, although in other respects there are some essential differences, such as in the rela- tion and homologies of the neurula, hind-gut, and the blastopore, other- wise there is an evident similarity, which may give us a key to the com- prehension of why it is that the embryo Teleost develops at and from the edge of the blastoderm. It was not my intention, however, to enter into an embryological dis- cussion in this place so much as to show that the development of the teleost was peculiarly conditioned mechanically in consequence of the peculiar organization of the egg, and that that had much to do in de- termining its mode of development. The real cause of some of its singu- larities appears to be the presence of the relatively enormous yelk which must be included by the blastoderm in order to be absorbed. The pro- cess of yelk-absorption itself in the teleost offers some strong contrasts with that described by writers on the absorption of the yelk of birds and Elasmobranchs, as we shall see in another place. A few words more on the mechanical conditions presented by the ova of several genera of fishes, and I have done with this part of the subject. I am familiar with the ova of four genera of salmonoids; Salmo, Salvelinns, Coregonus, and Osmerus; all are characterized by an abundance of oil drops embedded in the vitellus, but most abund- antly just immediately under the germinal disk, where indeed most of 200 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the oil seeins aggregated in the species studied by ine. This oil behaves like oils in general, even in the live eggs, i. e., its specific gravity is less than water, in consequence of which the aggregation of oil drops under- neath the disk tend to keep the latter directed constantly upward. If the egg is turned, the buoyancy of the oil drops at once turns the vitel- lus within the egg membrane, and brings it to rights with the germinal disk looking upwards. This contrivance, if one may so call it, for right- ing the egg is perfectly automatic. Later, when the embryos are hatched, the presence of the oil drops in the upper part of the yelk- sack helps to keep them in the natural position. Another totally different type of eggs is that of the cusk, crab-eater, Spanish mackerel, and moon-fish. In all of these forms the egg is buoy- ant in consequence of the presence of a single large oil sphere. This oil sphere is always situated at a point in the egg almost exactly oppo- site the germinal disk. In consequence of this arrangement the ger- minal disk is constantly inverted ; that is, it is carried on the lower- most face of the vitellus, the whole of the latter lying above it. It will be seen that in this case the buoyant oil drop of the egg acts in a man- ner just the reverse of what we noted in the eggs of the salmonoids. Even after the young have escaped from the egg membrane they are at first unable to right themselves, but swim for a time upside down. This is due to the presence of the oil drop in the yelk-sack to the ventral wall of which it is permanently fixed. The egg of the cod, strange to say, is wholly without the oil drop, but the specific gravity of the vitellus is so slight that it behaves pre- cisely like the foregoing, and has the germinal disk constantly directed downwards, floating in this position. The egg of Morone americana, or white perch, is another special case. Here the egg is adhesive and fixed, and embedded in the vitellus there is a very large oil sphere. In consequence of the fixed character of the egg membrane, the oil-drop controls the position of the vitellus and keeps the disk inverted and on the lower side of the vitelline globe, while the free, uncovered portion of the latter is always directed up- wards, at least during the early stages. The egg of the shad is another special case, and here there is an un- usually large water space all around the vitellus between the latter and the egg membrane, but the egg is non-adhesive, and its specific gravity is greater than that of the water in which it is immersed. The pecu- liarity about the behavior of the egg is the constant disposition of the germinal disk to arrange itself at the side of the vitellus when viewed from above, though there is no oil whatever present in the vitellus to influence the position of the vitellus or germ. Again, the egg of the plectognath, Aleuteres, is green, with a cluster of oil droplets embedded in its yelk or dentoplasm at one side. Its ger- minal matter or protoplasm is relatively large in amount. In Fundulus nud Syngnathus (lie oil drops appear uniformly distrib- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 201 uted and embedded in the superficial portions of the yelk next to its external surface. This brings the deposits of oily matter in close prox- imity to the vessels traversing the vitellus. The function of these oils, aside from their buoyant tendencies, as in these last cases, is not clear, and, beyond the fact that they are evidently absorbed together with the remainder of the yelk, we know little of their nutritive properties. Per- haps, in the process of physiological decomposition, these oils of fish embryos develop heat. If we are to judge by what may be observed in the absorption of the single oil drop of the Spanish mackerel, for ex- ample, it is one of the last portions of the vitellus to be absorbed. In fact, it dwindles progressively, the drop continually growing smaller, while it retains its globular form as it disappears. The remarkable differences here noted in regard to the organization and behavior of fish eggs are noteworthy, too, as showing that the state- ment so often and unwarrantably made, even by very distinguished biologists, to the effect that ova in general have the same physical con- stitution, differ in no respect from each other, &c, has no foundation in fact. Indeed, the more intimately we know the various forms of ova of the various animal species, the more evident does it become that some time, when our knowledge is more complete, we shall perhaps be able to distinguish the species apart by the eggs alone, just as botanists have used the characters presented by seeds to distinguish plants. It is also evident that such striking diversities of organization must, to a certain extent, be reflected in the mode of development of the various species ; that independently of the action of the principle of acceleration and re- tardation, pointed out by Professor Cope (the effects of the working of which are frequently very evident), the morphological character of the egg reacts upon the manner of development, as proved by the one fact that with the variation in the bulk of the yelk there is a corresponding variation in the length of the arc embraced by the body of the embyro as it lies on the sac before the tail begins to bud out. When once the body is segmented, and the primary somites are distinguishable, as we may call those proper to the body, which are formed before the caudal somites, the amount of matter used up in carrying the development to this stage in different species will of course vary j the yelk itself also varies in dimensions ; hence, as a natural result, the arc on the great longitudinal circumference of the latter, embraced by the embyro, must in like manner vary, so as to comprise one-third, one-half, or three- fourths of that circumference, as may be noted in different forms. These are not the only consequences of structure, as we learn upon making a still wider survey of the various forms of fish ova, some of which have been alluded to elsewhere, though we may here note the fact that the number of primary somites varies in the embryos of different genera. So great is this difference at the same relative stage in different spe- cies, that we find as many as seventy-five pairs of somites developed in Tylosurus and only eighteen to twenty in Alosa. (The terms somites 202 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. as here used is that now generally applied to designate what was form- erly implied by proto-vertebrce ; these embryonic segments represent the rudiments of the paired muscular plates on the opposite sides of the body of the adult.) The remarkable variation in the number of seg- ments developed in embryos of different genera, as pointed out a little way back, is also partly explained by the difference in the number of muscular segments in the parent fishes of the different species. This brings us to the recognition of the influence of that remarkable organic force, heredity. XII. — SPECIFIC CHARACTER OF PROTOPLASM. Beginning with that very remarkable substance designated by the name of protoplasm by Yon Mohl, sarcode by some writers, and the physical basis of life by Huxley, from a nearly homogeneous state in some protozoan types or in the yelks of some eggs, we pass in as- cending steps from one type to. another until we find that out of it va- rious tissues serving diverse uses have been differentiated. In the most undifferentiated forms, in this remarkable substance there inheres a power to feel and to distinguish objects which are fit for food from those which are not fit. The near presence of food appears to determine the lines along which the conscious living matter will travel, although anything like visible sense organs are entirely wanting.* The rude and primitive apparatus of movement before us in the amoeba foreshad- ows what is possible with co-ordinated combinations of such elements in more differentiated organisms. In the latter, similar minute lumps of the living matter, the cellular elements, no longer retain in all parts of the organism, of which they are at once the servants and members, the power of feeling and moving, of being at one and the same time nerve and muscle. Only in some degree do all the histological elements of organisms retain this independent characteristic; it is probably this hereditary legacy from the protozoan grade which constitutes what is known to physiologists as the vis medicatrix naturce, nisus formativus, or inherent remedial power. From the ccelenterata, some of which may be cut in two and yet mutually reproduce the severed parts, up to the warm- blooded mammalia where the powers of reparation are reduced to a min- imum, such as the healing of wounds and the knitting together of broken bones, and where a highly complicated and very fixed and special struct- ure has put an end to the possibility of any power to multiply parts by budding except in early embryonic states, but which rarely reach per- fection of development except in the case of minor and unimportant parts. This part of the subject has been more ably and more fully dis- cussed in Darwin's Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestica- tion, and is only iutroduced hero to illustrate the varying germinating and reparative power of protoplasm in the various grades of the animal kingdom. *See some remarkable cases described iu Leidy's Iihizopoih of North America. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 203 The physical character of the organic matter is extremely variable. Protoplasm may be colorless, black, yellow, orange, red, brown, green, violet, bine, purple, amethystine, pinkish, or amber-colored, with tints and tones as various as the species examined. Many of these colors are no doubt due to peculiar coloring matters, but it is evident that in many instances such is not the case, but that it is a part of the substance of the body in itself. Such differences become very apparent to the student of embryology, who sees usually either the pure protoplasm of the ho- loblastic ovum or the protoplasm together with added yelk or dento- plasni. Such marked differences of color as are often observed indicates an undoubted difference of constitution as indicated by the specific gravity of the eggs of various species of fishes. The reddish ovoidal blood-cells of Area pexata, first observed by me, are presumably colored by some ferrous compound, such as tinges the mammalian blood-disk. In some species of fishes (Alosa), when death takes place, the egg becomes lighter in water; in Tylosurus the death of the egg in sea- water makes no apparent difference in its specifie gravity, still falling to the bottom the same as the healthy egg. Then the healthy cod egg floats in sea- water, while the egg of Tylosurus sinks, though both are without oil spheres. Gn the other hand the eggs of Elecate, Parephippus, and Cybium float in sea- water, and have a single large oil drop embedded in the yelk op- posite the germinal disk. The egg of the shad, without oil drops, sinks in fresh water, while the eggs of the salmon family, inclosing many large and small oil droplets, also sink in fresh water, while the oil which they contain floats in the same medium. Besides their differences, those of color are equally well marked in the protoplasm of the germ, the lat- ter being much darker in some than in other species. The distinctly corpuscular character of the yelk in some, the ovoidal form of these corpuscles in others, as in Amia, for example, compared with its almost perfect homogeneity in Cybium and Elecate. seems to me to indicate a want of identity which cannot be covered by the one same term. As tacitly implied by the conditions of the hypothesis of pangenesis of Darwiu, and that of the perigenesis of the plastidule as proposed by Haeckel, we ought, I believe, to regard the protoplasm of distinct spe- cies as specifically distinct from other protoplasm, as the species from which it was derived is from all others, but itself in turn capable of modification under changed conditions of relation to the environment. Jevons (Principles of Science, p. 704) has the following: "Proto- plasm may be chemically the same substance, and the germ-cell of a man and of a fish may be apparently the same as far as tbe microscope can decide, but if certain cells produce men, and others as uniformly pro- duce a species offish, there must be a hidden constitution determining the extremely different results. If this were not so, the generation of every living creature from the uniform germ would have to be regarded as a distinct act of creation." IS T ow it is just this " uniform germ" doc- trine which I wish to point out the fallacy of from another point of view. 204 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. We are informed by very high authorities that man, for instance, is de- veloped from an ovule about the 125th of an inch in diameter, which differs in no respect from the ovules of other animals. Even within the limits of the mammalia, the phrase " differs in no respect from the ovules of other animals" is obviously inaccurate if a careful and just comparison of the figures of the ova of various genera and their dimen- sions, &c, as given by specialists, are compared together. That hack- neyed comparison of the gill arches of the various groups of vertebrates, indicating as it does, and as every one will be ready to admit, an im- portant morphological law, namely, community of descent, we cannot help but be incredulous when it is asserted, as it often is, that at a cer- tain stage it is nearly or altogether impossible to distinguish an embryo human being from a fish or dog of the same relative stage of develop- ment. If some of the most enthusiastic defenders of this type of evo- lution run mad had stuck conscientiously to the word " nearly" in order to qualify their assertion of the appearance of identity which they have mostly discovered upon comparing the embryological figures of careful laboratory investigators, we should not feel called upon to write the present paragraph. Of such an identity, perfect in detail, I defy any honest investigator to produce proof. It would, on the other hand, be an easy matter for specialists to produce abundant evidence that even within the limits of small and restricted groups specific differ- ences already make their appearance with the first steps of segmenta- tion, leaving out of account all other purely morphological differences, which, conscience knows, are sufficient in themselves to break up the foundations of the doctrine of identity so glibly retailed by these care- less writers. It has been noted that the segmentation of their germs will serve to mark the genera and species. I will go a step further and assert that there are numerous features, properly characters, which will serve the same purpose at various stages, and that at no stage can it be said that there is a positive identity even in closely allied genera or strongly marked species. Embryological differences have not been well enough studied in slightly marked varieties or species, to say much of these. But genera ought, in all conscience, to be close enough together to refute the validity of the " uniform germ theory." Here we find in every case great numbers of characters which may be stated in words, and many of these even become the most positive differentia) when a certain embryo is compared with the embryos of something else. Vast numbers of details must be considered as affecting this too readily as- sumed identity, not the least of which is form; perhaps this latter is really the most important. So long, then, as the somewhat similar germs of different animals produce different species, we shall or ought to hold to the doctrine that the protoplasm of which a man is made is different from that of which the body of a dog or a fish is composed. I do not wish to be understood as denying the possibility of variation in the nature of the protoplasm of different germs which have been de- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 205 rived from the same parent. I might cite facts to show that a single laying of eggs may produce individuals which differ from each other in many minor details j this variability is very marked in the plumage of broods of domestic birds, and I am informed by Mr. T. R. Peale that he has met with remarkable instances amongst butterflies, broods of which he had reared artificially from the eggs of a single parent. These well-known facts indicate that still another principle should not be lost sight of; namely, that the hidden constitutions of different germs of the same parent are variable ; that the living matter of the germ-producing organs themselves is not similar in its developmental tendencies. It follows from this, that when I say that in the protoplasm of the shad there inhere specific properties which are transferred to and embodied in its germs, I do not mean to say that the living matter of all parts of the body is alike, but that the protoplasm of its parts when compared with the same parts of other species must be unlike the latter. To put the same idea in other phraseology, I would say that not only is the pro- toplasm of the species specific, but also that, if we consider the* facts of variation, the different as well as the same parts of the body of one and the same species must be variable in their hidden and transmissible con- stitutions. In following out such a train of thought, it is almost im- possible not to trench upon Darwin's Hypothesis of Pangenesis, as we have done above ; but it is to be borne in mind, if one is faithful to the showings of right reason, that it is scarcely possible to escape such a coincidence. THE MICROSCOPIC SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AMERI- CAN, PORTUGUESE, AND COMMON EDIBLE OYSTER OF EUROPE COMPARED. By JOHN A. RYDER. In the issue of Forest and Stream of November 30, just past, in an article by the writer, page 351, middle column, it is remarked : " I re- gard Davaine's observations upon the histology of the reproductive or- gans [of the European oyster] as of little value, being made before the introduction of improved methods of investigation. His figures of the finer structural details have apparently been made from crushed frag- ments.". In passing this judgment upon Dr. Davaine's work, I have been severer than the state of the case demanded, as will be seen in the sequel, though I do not yet admit that his methods of research were what they should have been, for until now we have had no adequate de- scription of the structures in question. Until recently I have maintained with reservations that the sexes in the European oyster were probably separate as in the American ; more recent investigation with more refined methods have proved to me that in this I am in error. In my article in Forest and Stream I also took occasion to refer to a statement in Gegenbaur's Elements of Comparative Anatomy, English edition, p. 206 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 380, where lie says : " In the oysters we find an intermediate step toward a separation of the sexes, inasmuch as these organs are not active at the same time in the same individual ; but the male and female organs alternately so." The writer in commenting upon the above then wrote : " This quotation tacitly admits the unisexuality of the European oyster to which it evidently refers. The last part of the remark, however, is founded upon the slenderest kind of evidence ; in fact, upon no evidence except a surmise, as such an alternate activity of the two parts is im- probable [for obvious reasons]; besides, it is not possible to demonstrate such an alternation of sexual activity in the same individual. As every one knows, the soft parts of an oyster cannot be examined without open- ing the shell, which necessarily makes the needed second observation to confirm this alleged alternation of sexual activity a physical impossi- bility." I am now in a position to go still further and to assert that the first part of the quotation from Gegenbaur is also erroneous, because we may # find both eggs and spermatozoa in the same follicle at the same time. What, then, is the true state of the case % This query we propose an- swering, but before we set out it will be necessary to give some account of the methods of investigation used in order to arrive at a definite con- clusion. Thin sections of those portions of the animal in which the reproductive structures are lodged are of the first importance. After trying various methods, which were found for the most part unsatisfac- tory, the preparation of sections was finally conducted as follows : After the soft parts were removed from the shell they were thrown into a chromic acid solution of one to two per cent., in which they were al- lowed to remain for several days, and in some cases the hardening solu- tion was even renewed. This was done in order that the hardening agent might act upon the whole of the soft parts and harden them throughout ; unless the chromic acid is allowed some time to act upon the entire animal it will not be uniformly hardened, the center of the body remaining soft. After hardening, the animals should be thor- oughly washed and soaked in water for a couple of days to remove all traces of the acid before they are finally put into alcohol for permanent preservation. Hardened material so preserved will make good sections months afterwards. Portions of the body mass of different individuals should then be cut out; it is best to cut up the body into thick slices or blocks in a trans- verse direction, large enough to be conveniently held between the fin- gers. It was also found advisable to take such thick slices of the hard- ened body mass from several individuals, since it was discovered that scarcely any two had the reproductive glands developed to exactly the same degree of maturity. This point is important, as it has enabled us to follow up the development of the reproductive organs in the connect- ive tissue which invests them. After considerable experiment and dis- appointment in the effort to imbed these thick, hardened slices so as to BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 207 cut sections with the microtome, the method of imbedding was aban- doned altogether. The thick blocks or slices were entirely freed from alcohol by soaking in water for a day ; then removed, after drying them off as much as possible with blotting paper or a soft linen cloth, to a thick solution of gum arabic, in which it is best to allow them to remain twenty-four to forty-eight hours so as to be thoroughly saturated. The superfluous gum may then be poured off and the blocks of tissue, soaked as they are with the gum, covered with strong alcohol. In twenty-four hours the blocks will be found hard enough to cut. The blocks of hard- ened tissue are simply held between the thumb and forefinger, and the sections made with a section-knife with the free hand. When cutting sections, it is necessary to keep the knife well wetted with alcohol so that the sections may readily slide off on the upper side of the blade. Water should not be used to wet the knife, as it would get on the block of tissue, dissolve the gum, and soften the surface to be cut, and injure the succeeding sections. The sections are lifted from the knife as fast as cut, with a camel's hair pencil, and thrown into a dish of water, in which the gum will dissolve out in a few minutes. The sections are then ready to be stained, and in order to clearly differentiate the her- maphroditic character of the reproductive glands of ostrea edulis a special staining reagent must be used. The one which gives the best results and acts most quickly will be given here. Equal parts of dense alco- holic solutions of safranin red and methyle green * are poured together and diluted with about eight times their combined volumes of water, producing a dark purplish solution of about the color of claret wine. Into this the sections may be thrown and allowed to remain until com pletely saturated with color or until they are opaque; they may remain in the staining fluid from one hour to a day, but two or three hours is a sufficient length of time. When removed from the staining fluid they are too deeply stained to be mounted at once, and must therefore be transferred to 95 per cent, or absolute alcohol and stirred about in it until the safranin red is no longer given off in clouds from the sections; but it is important to note that if the sections remain in the strong alco- hol too long the whole of the safranin will be washed out. In order to prevent this, when it is seen that the section has acquired a rosy red hue, combined with a bluish-green tint in the parts stained by the me- thyle green, the object should at once be removed from the alcohol and thrown into oil of cloves and mounted in balsam or daraar. The extrac- tion of the superfluous color requires from five to fifteen minutes, ac- cording to the thickness and character of the section, and should on no account be allowed to proceed too far; if it does, the peculiar and im- portant staining effect of the safranin is lost. As first pointed out by Flemming, it has the peculiar property of staining the nucleus and its con- tents, while it may be totally removed from other parts of the cell ; in * These are both aniline colors; the first is hard to obtain, except from dealers in dyers' colors. 208 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. fact, as in the oyster egg, it may be entirely removed from the nucleus and left only in a part of the nucleolus. The methyle green, ou the other hand, does not tend to stain the eggs, but rather the spermatozoa and the cells from which they are derived, and it is one of the most as- tounding facts known to histological chemistry that, although both of these dyes, to begin with, are intimately mixed together in the staining fluid, the different histological elements of the section exert some kind of selective power by which they absorb and hold mainly the one color only. This peculiar property of the two colors, even when mixed to- gether, enables one to distinctly map out the relations of the sexual ele- ments in the reproductive follicles, the nuclei of the ovarian ova being stained red by the safranin, and the heads of the spermatozoa bluish green by the methyl green. The foregoing is maiuly the method to which I have had recourse in working out the sexual characteristics of Ostrea edulis. Simpler staining methods suffice in the case of Ostrea virginica and Ostrea angulata. A single color used in staining sections of 0. edulis is liable to lead to error in consequence of the peculiar mode in which the spermatozoa are packed together in oblong clusters, which are often of about the size of the ovarian ova. This egg-like appearance of the masses of unripe spermatozoa in the follicles of the reproductive organs of the common oyster of Europe misled me when examining sections stained only with eosin or carmine. The monochromatic effect produced by one color only gave no hint as to the real relations of ova and sper- matozoa in the follicles until high powers were used with special manip- ulation of the light. The characteristics of the reproductive organs of Ostrea edulis, 0. vir- ginica, and 0. angulata are sufficiently marked to be very precisely de- scribed and figured so as to enable any person to appreciate the differ- ences, especially between the first and last two. 0. edulis is essentially hermaphroditic in the structure of its reproductive organs, while the othej? two are as distinctly monoecious or unisexual. A marked difference is also to be noted in the relative size or caliber of the reproductive fol- licles in the hermaphroditic and in the unisexual species. In 0. edulis the caliber of the generative tubules appears to be relatively much greater than in 0. virginica and 0. angulata, nor are the tubules so densely crowded together as in the latter species. Up to this time this difference appears to me to be so marked that I think it would be pos- sible to distinguish sections of 0. edulis from those of the other two species by means of this one character. In other respects the history of the development of the reproductive tissues in both species appears to be similar. In all the sexual tissue arises as a linear, interstitial differentiation between the coarse, connective-tissue cells of the animal, only that in 0. edulis the rudimentary network does not form quite so close a mesh work as in the other two forms here considered. The tub- ules have a more extensive anastomosis with each other in the unisex- ual species than in the hermaphroditic. In all the forms fine vessels BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. 20D pass off from the dorsal and ventral somatic arteries, which tend to branch into vessels of a capillary fineness amongst the productive folli- cles. Thus the glandular portions of the reproductive organs are effect- ively nourished by supplies of blood passing from the great vessels given off by the heart. These are the principal characteristic features of the reproductive follicles in the hermaphroditic and unisexual forms which are noticed upon comparing the two together. The most impor- tant differences between the two forms are to be found, however, in the mode in which the generative elements are produced in each type, which we will now consider. In 0. ediilis the reproductive glands when well developed show in many cases a lining of large nearly mature ovules or ovarian eggs, at intervals, and insinuated between them large coarsely granular bodies may be observed, in which large, irregular, nuclear bodies are often embedded. These nuclear bodies are further distinguished from those of the ovules by their oval or oblong and often irregular form, and by containing a dense mass of granules which absorb safranin in such quantity as to become opaque. This granular chromatin, as it would be designated by Flernining, is usually aggregated at the center of the nuclear or cellular mass, whichever it may be, and is furthermore apt to conform to a certain extent to the external outline of the body which contains it. From these bodies the rounded granular cells appear to arise, which fall into the cavity of the tubule or follicle, there to un- dergo further segmentation, and finally break up into spermatozoa with spherical heads and filiform tails or flagella. Even in some cases, where no spermatozoa are as yet revealed by the methyl green, these rounded spermogens or spermatoblasts are to be seen free in the center of the follicles. Usually, however, the spermatoblasts have been crowded towards the external end of the tubule where they have undergone dif- ferentiation into spermatozoa. The spermatozoa are often on this ac- count so crowded together at the outlet of the tubules, passing even into the superficial ducts, so that when acted upon by the methyl green they are revealed as a dense, almost opaque, dark, bluish-green mass. The ovules, on the other hand, which may be quite nearly ma- ture, remain unstained, except their spherical clear nucleus and nucleolus, which is double, as if formed of two conjoined spherules. If the sa- franin has been washed out of the nucleus the one spherule of the nucle- olus only is apt to retain the color. The peculiar nucleus of the ovules at once distinguishes them from the elements, which later break up and become the spermatozoa. Apparently every phase of the spermatoge- netic process is under way in the follicles, while more or less nearly mature ovules may be adherent to the walls of the same tubules. In some specimens I find the tubules to contain nothing but ova, with little or no trace of spermatoblasts; in others, again, both classes of prod- ucts may be present in about the same condition of maturity. In still others little else but spermatozoa are to be found, but, adherent to the Bull. U. S. F. 0., 82 U March 14, 1883. 210 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. walls of the follicles, cells are to be found which have the nucleus so char acteristic of the more mature ovules. These, I am inclined to believe, are the representatives of what will later become ova, and not the rep- resentatives of spermatoblasts. It is a singular fact that the spermato- zoa have a tendency in 0. edulis to cling together in masses of about a uniform size. Though the spermatic particles which comprise these masses are somewhat separated from each other, if compressed together they would evidently form a body about the size of the spermatoblasts from which they were derived. Later they tend to break up and form a more homogeneous, granular mass at the outlet of their parent tubule, where the latter joins the outgoing efferent duct. While it is true that some sections of 0. edulis show little evidence of the presence of any- thing else but the product of one sex, it appears to me that there is sufficient evidence of the hermaphrodite character of the generative glands of the species presented by a pretty large series of sections taken from about fifty individuals from different localities along the coasts of Wales, Scotland, England, France, Holland, and Germany. Sometimes a portion only of a section will be hermaphroditic, showing that different parts of the generative glands of the same animals may be of different sexes. The result of this arrangement is that it is scarcely possible for the eggs to escape impregnation by the milt generated along- side of them, and we may, I believe, fairly assume that Ostrea edulis is a self-fertilizing hermaphrodite. The condition of things in the generative tubules of Ostrea virginica and angulata is very different, as may be gathered from the following account. In the first place I have never found any evidence of hermaph- roditism either in the living animal or in sections of the reproductive organs. The mode of pressing out the spawn from the gland and ducts of 0. virginica, and the physical test used to determine the sex of the products in practical work during the last season, afford the most posi- tive demonstrations of the unisexuality of that species. Examining sec- tions, however, we never find either in the reproductive follicles of 0. virginica or of 0. angulata any evidence of the coexistence of ovules and spermatozoa. In fact, the mode of spermatogenesis in the uni- sexual species is very different from that of the hermaphroditic. As indicated in Brooks' figure of a part of a section of a male oyster, the spermatozoa are peculiarly arranged in the follicle or tubule. Upon applying a high power (500 to 800 diameters) I find that the heads of the spermatozoa show a very marked tendency to be arranged in rows like beads and not in oblong clusters, as in the hermaphroditic species. Moreover, the walls of the generative tubules are lined by relatively very much smaller spermatoblasts than those found free in the repro- ductive follicles of the hermaphrodite form. This spermatogenetic layer is often very marked in the males of the unisexual species, and even at an early stage of the functional activity of the testicular or- gans presents much the same structure that it does later. The rows BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 211 of spermatozoa already alluded to also have a tendency to be bent to- wards the outlet of the tubules, giving rise to a fringe-like appearance on either side of follicle with a clearer space between the edges of the fringe-like masses of spermatozoa. In fact it is plainly to be seen that the spermatozoa are being budded off from the spermatogenetic layer, and that the appearances just described are a result of that process. It results from this that the structural peculiarities of the testicular tu bules are very characteristic, so that once recognized they will never afterwards be confounded with the arrangement observed in the ovary of the female, where, as in the hermaphrodite species, the ova may be seen in different stages of development, though where the majority of the ovules have attained nearly full development, it may happen that few of the nascent ovules closely adherent to the walls of the follicles are visible. The distinction between Ostrea edulis and the American and Portu- guese species is therefore very marked and important. Mobius, Der Auster und die Austernwirthschaft, Berlin, 1877, page 19, says of their species : " Oysters are hermaphrodites. In thelargest number of indi- viduals, in the whole reproductive organ, I found only spermatozoa, but no eggs. In seven oysters which carried blue brood in the beard, the sexual gland contained only spermatozoa. Three oysters with younger white embryos in the beard had no spermatozoa in the sexual gland. In the most of the brood-bearing oysters the sexual gland con- tained neither eggs nor spermatozoa. Of 309 oysters, which were taken, on the 25th May, from four different banks east of the island of Sylt and afterward examined from May 26 to June 1, 18 per cent, were hermaphroditic, and of the remaining 82 per cent, one-half were egg-bearing, the other half sperm- bearing. In none were the sexual products completely mature. From these observations I conclude that the eggs and spermatozoa do not develop simultaneously but success- ively in the sexual gland ; that spermatozoa may be developed very soon after the discharge of the ova, and that probably one-half of the oysters of one locality during a breeding period produce only eggs, and the other half produce only spermatozoa." To the same effect are the statements of Lacaze-Duthiers ; but Davaine seems to have first no- ticed the peculiar aggregations of spermatozoa in oval masses in Ostrea edulis. Brooks thinks " Gerbe's statement, that among 435 European oysters one year old he found 35 with young, 127 with ripe eggs, and 189 with ripe semen, seems to be sufficient to show the incorrectness of Lacaze-Duthiers' conjecture that the functionally male condition pre- cedes the functionally female condition." This is about the state of the controversy at present in regard to the breeding habits of Ostrea edulis. The only authority, as far as I am aware, who distinctly takes the ground that eggs of this species are fertilized in the reproductive organs is Horst, who says : " Not only do ine embryos pass through their first stages of development within the 212 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. mantle cavity of the adult, and impregnation occurs internally instead of externally, but it may also be said that the eggs and spermatozoa come into contact in their passage out of the generative glands." It is barely possible, indeed probable, if my memory serves me rightly, that Davaine has put similar observations upon record. Horst also distinctly asserts that the normal development of the embryos of Ostrea edulis cannot take place outside of the parent. Mr. Berthelot, according to Mr. Brandely, has discovered that the fluids in the mantle cavity of 0. edulis contain albumen in a notable proportion, upon which the young are supposed to be nourished. Mr. Brandely has found by direct experi- ment, that in the case of 0. angulata it is possible to artificially impreg- nate the eggs. His attempts to fertilize the eggs of 0. edulis with the milt of 0. angulata and vice versa were unsuccessfully repeated at differ- ent times for the last two years. I am now also uncertain in regard to the identity of the species of which Lieutenant Winslow succeeded in artificially impregnating the eggs at the mouth of the St. Mary's Biver, in the Bay of Cadiz, Spain, which he says were natives, the variety having existed and flourished in the bay for as far back as could be re- membered. I quote his description of the specimens he used in his ex- periments as follows: "In appearance they were quite similar to the American species (Ostrea virginica), having long shells of from one to three inches in length, rougher and thicker than is usually the case with the European oyster." This remark raises the question whether the experimenter was not really working with 0. aw#uZ«to instead of 0. edulis. The locality where he got his specimens and where he conducted his ex- periments also makes it not improbable that he was in reality working the native unisexual species, 0. angulata. To return to the question of the breeding habits of Ostrea edulis, it appears to me that we cannot very well question the authority of M6- bius, Lacaze-Dutkiers, and Horst, in regard to the bisexual state of the reproductive organs. My investigations also give some countenance to the fact of a preponderance either of eggs or of spermatozoa in dif- ferent individuals ; in fact, in some cases the one or other seems to be almost exclusively the mature product. But we are not yet in a posi- tion to arrive at a conclusion in this matter because of the scantiness of the observations which have hitherto been made. The hypothesis- that the spermatozoa are drawn from without into the generative ducts by the ciliary action of the gills and mantle may be dismissed with the remark that microscopic investigation, to my mind, has effectually dis- posed of the probability of any such a state of affairs. We may see the spermatozoa in course of development in the same follicle with the ova, which is conclusive proof that the milt has not been derived from without, from the water into which it had been discharged by neigh- boring individuals. In truth, we find in some cases the spermatozoa pres- ent so deep down in the utmost ramifications of the generative follicles- that it is not conceivable that they should have been drawn in from without. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 213 As to the alternate activity of the organs in producing ova and sperma- tozoa there is a possibility that such is the case, but as stated at the outset there is as yet no conclusive proof of the fact. Certain it is, that I have yet to see sections of 0. edulis in which both ova and spermatozoa are not present in some condition of development at the same time. If the one be not present in a fully developed state, developing traces of it may be •discovered, or even a very minute quantity of developed milt or a few developed eggs may be present in some one follicle, while in the others there are perhaps exclusively eggs or exclusively milt in a developed condition. I am aware that this view of the matter is opposed to the current doctrine that nature provides against continuous interbreeding, but when we find the eggs and milt about equally advanced in develop- ment in the same follicle, what is there to prevent self-fertilization ; iu fact, what else can be the mode of reproduction ? In some of the sections of 0. edulis examined by me the ovules already measured 257th of an inch in diameter, showing them to be about twice ' the size of the ripe eggs of 0. virginica and 0. angulata, in both of which the ova are of about the same size when mature. Estimates which I have made, based on the figures of the eggs of 0. edulis given by M. Davaine, show them to be ys oth of an inch in diameter. Estimates based on the figures of Lacaze-Duthiers give 2 loth of an inch, while Mobius and Horst give the size of the young fry at ylsth of an inch in diameter. The spherical heads of the spermatozoa of the three species here discussed measure about the same or approximately, yg-^o o^h of an inch in diam- eter. The clusters of spermatozoa of 0. edulis measure approximately T i^th of an inch in diameter. The spherical unsegmented spermato- blasts which break up into spermatozoa in 0. edulis measure ysVoth of an inch in diameter. The nucleus of the ovarian eggs of 0. edulis measure not quite yioth of an inch in diameter. The nucleus of the ovarian egg of 0. angulata measures approximately tsVs 1 ^ of an inch in diameter, which is about that of the nucleus of the egg of 0. virginica. The large spherule of the nucleolus of the egg of 0. edulis measures 2^5-oth of an inch in diameter; the small spherule, which is stained red by the safranin, measures TiVoth of an inch ; the long diameter of the conjoined spherules is TrVoth of an inch. The long diameter of the nucleolus of the egg of 0. angulata and 0. virginica is about ToVo^h of an inch. A slide in my possession containing some of the brood of 0. edulis shows that, even after it has acquired both valves of the shell within the beard of the mother oyster, the brood varies greatly in size. I find, for example, that such fry measures from -rhrth of an inch down to as small as yioth. This brood, like that of the American oyster, has not yet acquired any umbonal prominences at the hinge end of the valves. Before this occurs in the American oyster embryo considerable growth has taken place, but when the shell already covers the body the whole embryo, contrary to what is found in the European species, measures little, if any, more in diameter, than the egg, or about ^oth of an inch. Later, when the 214 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. embryo lias grown considerably and when it is on the eve of attaching itself permanently, it measures from -g^th down to -^th of an inch in diameter. The mode of fixation of the fry of both species is probably the same, but the mode of incubation — the one in the mother, the other in the open water — we see is widely different, differing as greatly in this respect as do the eggs in size and details of construction, as shown by the measurements which I have given. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that the material from which I prepared my sections was received from Europe, in January and March, when it is to be supposed that the reproductive organs were not yet fully developed, and that consequently the dimensions of the ovarian ova as found by me are rather to be con- sidered as being below than above their true ones when fully developed at the height of the spawning season. It is a very remarkable fact that one finds individual specimens of oysters in which the reproductive organs have undergone total atrophy or wasting away at the completion of the spawning season. Examining sections through the body-mass of spawn-spent oysters taken from their native waters in August last, I find that the whole of the connective tissue subjacent to the mantle, and between the latter and the liver, especially over the sides of the body-mass, has disappeared, together with all traces of the reproductive organs, including the superficial branches of the efferent ducts. At the first bend of the intestine there is still some of the connective tissue remaining; but even here and in the mantle it has changed its character entirely, and become very spongy and areolar, instead of solid, and composed of large vesicular cells, such as are met with when the animal is in a better condition of flesh. In fact, it appears as if this mesenchymal or connective tissue substance had been used up and converted into reproductive bodies — generative products — in the case of the spawn-spent and extremely emaciated indi- viduals. In sections from individuals in various conditions from that in which the rudimentary network of generative tubules has just appeared in the connective tissue, on up to those in which the reproductive tissues are enormously developed in bulk and proportion to the mass of the remaining structures, there is a perfect gradation from their complete absence to their full development. This would appear to be very strong evidence in support of the theory that the reproductive follicles, or tubules, are developed anew each season directly from the specialization of certain strings or strands of connective tissue cells. Many animals manifest a periodic development of the glandular por- t ions of the reproductive organs ; but I know of no form in which there is any such presumptive evidence that these organs are annually regen- erated and finally altogether aborted as seems to be the case with the i »yster. Together with the changes here described, the most remarkable changes in the solidity and consistence of the animal take place. The shrinkage of a spawn-spent oyster in alcohol or chomic acid solution is excessive, and will, when complete, reduce the animal to one-tenth of BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 215 its bulk while alive. This shrinkage is due to abstraction of the water with which the loose, spongy tissue of the exhausted animal is distended. A so-called "fat" oyster, on the other hand, will suffer no such excess- ive diminution in bulk when placed in alcohol or other hardening fluid. In consequence of this variable development of the reproductive organs as well as that of the connective tissue of the body-mass, the amount of solid protoplasmic material contained in the same animal at different times under different conditions must vary between wide limits. And, inasmuch as the nutritive and reproductive functions of animals are notoriously interdependent, it follows in consequence of the enormous fertility of the oyster that a vast amount of stored material in the shape of connective tissue must be annually converted into germs and annu- ally replaced by nutritive processes. Plentitude or dearth of food are also to be considered ; but it now becomes a little easier to understand the physiological interdependence of the reproductive function and the so-called fattening process. To a great extent what has been remarked in the preceding para- graphs of the wasting away of the reproductive organs in Ostrea vir- ginica, seems to apply also to 0. edulis and 0. angulata. The last species has an extraordinarily thick body- mass with the stratum of reproduct- ive follicles of remarkable thickness, averaging a much greater develop- ment than I have ever seen in any other form. When the contents of this great mass of tubules has been discharged a diminution in the bulk of the body-mass must naturally ensue, probably accompanied by a wasting away of the connective tissue and tubules such as apparently occurs in the American species. From what I have seen of the gener- ative tubules of 0. edulis in sections, they are evidently regenerated much as in 0. virginica. In a few specimens I find them almost entirely gone, or present only in an extremely rudimentary state. BBIXGIX; WHALE OIL FROM THE PACIFIC TO NEW YOBK. By FREDERICK HABERSHAW. [From letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] I am bringing the Northwest Pacific whale oil, which is now delivered by whalers at San Francisco, to the Atlantic by bulk cars instead of by Cape Horn route, as formerly. The total amount coming thus by rail is 21 cars this year, averaging 3,300 gallons each, or 69,300 gallons. San Francisco has become the whaling depot of the Pacific, for the fitting up and discharging of whalers ; it is only a question of time when all this product will be brought to the Atlantic by rail. Probably in a few years all the manufacturing will be done there instead of at New Bedford. 113 Maiden Lane, New Yoek, January 30, 1883. 216 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. OCCURRENCE OF FUR SEALS IN MID-OCEAN. By LIEUT. Z. E. TANNER, U. S. N. [Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] At your request I send you the following extracts from my remark book during a passage from Yokohama to San Francisco in the Pacific mail steamer City of Peking : June 25, 1878.— Latitude at noon, 42° 55' 53" north, longitude 162° 14' 45" east. During the morning passed branches of a tree; saw a couple of seals, several ducks, albatross, and large numbers of jelly-fish. June 26.— Latitude noon, 42° 53' 17" north, longitude 167° 16' 30" east A. M. — Several pieces of driftwood seen ; ducks, whales, and whale birds in sight occasionally. P. M. — Passed several pieces of driftwood — two pine trees 60 to 80 feet in length. June 28.— Latitude noon, 42° 43' 22" north, longitude 177° 43' 06" east. A. M. — Several seals and ducks seen. June 30.— Latitude noon, 43° 05' 18" north, longitude 167° 41' 06" west. A. M. — Passed a pine tree 1£ foot diam., bark gone, surface clean. July 1.— Latitude noon, 43° 01' 14" north, longitude 161° 23' 30" west. A. M. — Whales, seals, puffins, &c, seen during the day. Note. — Puffins mentioned in this day's remarks are the ducks of pre- vious days. July 2.— Latitude noon, 43° 05' 12" north, longitude 155° 26' 37" west. A. M. — Whales seen during the day. P. M. — A large school of fish seen during the evening. Note. — Uncertain as to kind of fish; last called them skip-jacks. July 3.— Latitude noon, 43° 02' 06" north, longitude 145° 41' 30" west. A. M. — Porpoises seen during the morning. P. M. — A large school of fish resembling herring seen during the afternoon. Passed a large drift log covered with barnacles at 5.30 p. m. July 4.— Latitude noon, 43° 05' 56" north, longitude 144° 16' 00" west. Whales and a small number of Portuguese men-of-war (vcllala) were seen during the day. P. M. — Whales seen during the afternoon. July 5.— Latitude noon, 42° 41' 52" north, longitude 138° 30' 15" west, A. M. — Whales and a small number of vellalas seen during the day. The usual number (3) of gonies following the ship. Note. — The three gonies referred to were usually with the ship, until we approached land at either end of the route. Other birds were seen almost daily, but it seldom happened that those mentioned above were absent for any length of time. I have no doubt seals, &c, were seen on other voyages, but my books are not at hand to-day. U. S. F. C. Steamer Albatross, Navy Yard, Washington, D. C, December 29, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 217 ACCOUNT OF OPERATIONS AT THE ItlcCLOUD RIVER FISH-RREED- IIVG STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION, FROM lSr-2 TO 1883, INCLUSIVE. By LIVINGSTON STONE. [Written by request of Professor Baird, for the London Exhibition, 1883. j The United States salmon -breeding establishment on the McCloud Eiver, California, which afterwards became the largest of its kind in the world, arose from small beginnings. A rough board cabin 12 feet by 11 feet, and a small set of hatching-troughs, resting on the ground, without a roof over them, constituted the McCloud Eiver salmon-breed- ing station of the United States in 1872, the first year of its history. Three white men, including the writer, with the help of one or two In- dians, did all the work. Our one room answered the purpose of office, kitchen, dining-room, and bed-room for all of us. Thirty thousand sal- mon eggs, matured for shipment, which afterwards dwindled down to 9,003 living ones at the end of their overland journey, constituted the results of the season's work. We even actually suffered, at times, for want of means. More than once my remittances from Washington being unexpectedly delayed, we were obliged to sell part of our clothing and some of the cooking utensils to obtain money for our immediate neces- sities. Our force was so small that we were repeatedly in danger of being robbed and murdered, and it often became necessary for the same man to work all day and two-thirds of the night to complete the day's work. From these small beginnings and straitened circumstances sprung the McCloud Eiver salmon-breeding station, which a few years afterwards employed forty or fifty men, and distributed in one season nearly 14,000,000 salmon eggs, which went not only to various parts of the United States, but to several foreign countries, of which New Zea- land was the most remote. The results of the season's work, however, small as they were, were enough. They were sufficient to establish the important facts that salmon eggs could be procured in California, could be matured for ship- ment, and, w T hat was more gratifying than all, could be sent alive across the North American Continent. To settle the points just mentioned was a matter of no small conse- quence. Every one of them was regarded as extremely doubtful before the expedition set out, while at the same time every one of them was absolutely indispensable to success. The whole project, indeed, of get- ting salmon eggs on a large scale on the Pacific coast, and transport- ing them alive to the Atlantic coast, had been looked upon with great distrust. It was considered very doubtful whether the California salmon eggs could be procured in large quantities. It was considered doubtful whether, under the changed conditions of the Pacific slope, salmon eggs 218 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. could be brought to the shipping (packing) age in a healthy state ; and finally it was generally thought to be decidedly impracticable to trans- port them alive a distance of over three thousand miles from one ocean to the other, in which latter view the writer to some extent shared. It will be seen, therefore, that to settle these doubtful points was no- small achievement, and the fact that they were settled makes the re- sults of this first season, insignificant as they were in magnitude, of the utmost importance in point of fact. xVt all events, the United States Commission felt authorized by the results to continue the work another year, and each successive year more and more clearly vindicated the wisdom of this decision. Perhaps, as ten years have elapsed since that time, I may be pardoned for recall- ing some of the reminiscences of that first year at the fishery, so full of novelty, of anxiety, and of interest to those who were engaged in the work. I arrived in California on the 8th of August, 1872, with instructions from Professor Baird, United States Commissioner of Fisheries, to find a suitable place for procuring the eggs of the Pacific coast salmon on a large scale, and if practicable to obtain and forward some to the Eastern States that year. As the salmon with which I was familiar — the Salmo solar of the Atlantic coast — does not deposit its spawn until October, I did not feel at all uneasy on account of not having time enough. I nevertheless spared no pains to gather information as to where the Pacific coast salmon spawned, and as to what would be the best location for procuring their eggs on a large scale. I expected to be informed at once where the spawning grounds of Sacramento salmon were. Eeared in New England, where almost every square foot of ground has been explored, I supposed that almost any one who had given at- tention to the matter could tell where the salmon spawned. To my very great astonishment, not a man could be found in California who could give the desired information. The fishermen at Sacramento, and between Sacramento and San Fran- cisco, knew all about catching salmon, but none of them knew where the salmon spawned. The State fish commissioners, although they had collected valuable information of other kinds, had not yet learned the location of the spawning grounds of the Sacramento salmon. As I was about giving up in despair, Hon. B. B. Bedding, secretary of the Cal- ifornia fish commission, introduced me to Mr. W. W. Montague, the chief engineer of the Central Pacific Bailroad, who gave me the first clew I had yet received to the much-desired information in regard to the spawning of the California salmon. Mr. Montague said that he had seen Indians spearing salmon on the McCloud River, and was quite sure that he had seen the ripe spawn coming from the fish that had been speared. Here was a clew to work from. I lost no time in taking con- veyance to the McCloud River. I arrived on the river on the 29th of BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 219 August, and with my own eyes saw proofs of the correctness of Mr. Montague's statements. Indeed, the Indians were there actually spear- ing salmon, with the ripe spawn coming from them. Here, at last, was found one at least of the spawning grounds of the salmon of the Sacra- mento River. There w T as no doubt about that, but it was associated with another fact that filled me with dismay, and that was that the salmon were at this very time engaged in depositing their spawn, and I had no net, no hatching-house, no hatching apparatus, and indeed nothing whatever, to enable me to avail myself of the facilities presented right here of securing the salmon eggs, that in thousands upon thousands were now being deposited by the parent fish. Every one knows that it is as impossible to procure salmon eggs after the salmon-spawning sea- son is over, as it is to pick a dish of blackberries after the blackberry sea- son is over. In either case no amount of money or zeal is of any avail. Our dismay can perhaps be imagined, then, when it is known that we discovered that the spawning season was nearly at its height, that it must necessarily soon be over, while we had not the means to mature a single egg. It should be remembered also that we were in an unsettled wilderness, 50 miles from a railway and telegraph station, and about the same distance from a saw-mill. The situation called for the most energetic measures, and no pains were spared nor a moment lost in bring- ing lumber to the spot that I had selected for the hatching works, and in getting some system of fishing under way for procuring a regular supply of salmon eggs. Our party worked so industriously, and were so fa- vored by circumstances, that on the lGth of September we had on a brook near by, a set of hatching-troughs established, in good running order, and had also built a small cabin of rough boards, where we could sleep at night and keep our tools and other valuables. I was also prepared to draw a seine regularly in the river for parent salmon. It was none too soon, for now the spawning season was very near its end, and by far the larger proportion of salmon in the river had spawned. By dint of persevering labor, which sometimes involved working night and day, we obtained the eggs of about twenty salmon and placed them in good condition in the hatching-troughs. Our trials were, however, by no means at an end. In California there are many bands of hogs running in a half- wild state in the woods and hills. One hot day a number of these hogs refreshed themselves by bathing and wallowing in the little brook that supplied the hatching- troughs with water ; in a few minutes the water was as roily as the Missouri River and in half an hour the eggs in the troughs were covered with mud. This was both discouraging and alarming, but we finally cleaned the mud off the eggs, drove away the hogs, and restored every- thing to its normal condition. From this time until the season was over we had to "watch out" for the hogs and drive them off, and notwith- standing our vigilance we were several times compelled to clean the hatching-troughs of the mud which the hogs had stirred up when they 220 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. found us off our guard. This was not all. To our great alarm we found that on very hot and dry days the brook which fed the troughs would shrink by nightfall to one-half or one-fourth of its size in the morning, owing to evaporation and leakage. However, we did not take enough eggs this season to cause even this much-reduced water supply to become insufficient, and we consequently did not suffer much from this •cause ; but the climax of our troubles was reached when, one hot after- noon, on trying the thermometer in the brook, we found that it stood at 84° F., and on looking at the salmon eggs we found every one white and dead. This was indeed a dark day for the young salmon-hatching station. Still there was one hope left. We could perhaps obtain a few more eggs before the last straggler among the breeding salmon had deposited its spawn, and the cooler weather of the fall being now near at hand there was some chance of the water not getting hot enough to kill the eggs. On this frail hope and chance we went to work again, although heavily handicapped in spirit and energy by this last almost fatal discouragement. This time we succeeded, by hook and by crook, by resorting to every possible means of securing spawning fish, in obtaining thirty thousand more eggs. These were safely laid down, and succeeded in running the gauntlet of all the dangers that threatened them, and in sixteen days showed the welcome eye-spots. The sight restored our failing courage. Half the battle was over. It was now proved that salmon eggs could be procured and developed to the proper stage for shipment. But a still greater difficulty loomed up before us ; this was to trans- port the eggs alive from these foot-hills of the Sierras to the waters of the Atlantic coast where they were wanted. I confess I had but a very feeble hope that this could be done. However, it was attempted. I sent 50 miles to Mount Shasta for moss for packing, packed the eggs as well as I could, and, wishing them a God-speed for their long journey, sent them on the stage to the nearest railway station, from which the cars took them more than 3,400 miles to their destination in New Jersey. I did not expect to ever hear of them alive again, but in a week or two came the joyful news that about a third of them had arrived on the Atlantic coast in good condition. The other half of the battle was now won ; it was settled beyond a doubt that the eggs of the Pacific coast salmon could not only be obtained and matured for shipment, but could be sent alive across the North American Continent. This is a summary account of the first beginnings of the United States salmon-breeding establishment of California; but though it was small and weak at first, it grew every succeeding year in strength and efficiency, and soon in capacity and actual results eclipsed all other similar establishments in the world. At the close of this report will be found a diary of the more important events of its history, illustrating its growth and development from year to year. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 221 I will now leave the chronological order of events, and take up in succession the various subjects connected with the carrying on of this station which seem to present themselves most prominently, and will speak first of its advantages of location. ADVANTAGES OF LOCATION. There are several tributaries of the Sacramento in California that tins salmon formerly ascended for the purpose of depositing their spawn. With three exceptions, all of these rivers, as, for instance, the Feather River, the Yuba, the American Fork, have long ago been completely ruined as spawning grounds, in consequence of the immense deposit of mud in them, caused by the hydraulic mining operations on these rivers. Not a salmon ever enters these streams now. Except possibly at a time of very high water, these streams are so thick with mud that it would kill any fish attempting to ascend them. The three exceptions mentioned are the Pit Eiver, the Little Sacramento, and the McCloud, which is really a tributary of the Pit Eiver. Now of these three rivers, the Pit above its confluence with the McCloud becomes too warm for salmon in the summer, and the Little Sacramento is rapidly losing its salmon owing to mining operations which have been carried on there during the last few years. It will consequently be seen that the McCloud re- mains the only stream tributary to the Sacramento that furnishes good spawning grounds for the Sacramento salmon. Up this river the great body of the Sacramento Eiver salmon go to spawn, and on this river, 2 miles from its mouth, is built the salmon-breeding station of the TJnited States Fish Commission. Advantageous as this situation is for its abundance of salmon, it would be of little use as a distributing point for the eggs if it had no convenient lines of communication with the rest of the world ; but fortu- nately the California and Oregon stage route — the only direct through road but one in the country, connecting Oregon and California — follows the north bank of the McCloud for a short distance, and it is just where the stage road coming south touches the river that the salmon-breed- ing station is built. It was a most happy combination of circumstances that this through line happened to strike the point where, of all others, the California salmon could be most abundantly obtained. The conse- quence is that we have had, during our whole ten years there, a daily mail north and south and all the incidental advantages, which are very great, of living on the great thoroughfare between the two States. Besides these advantages just mentioned, this station has another, which, though of a negative character, is nevertheless indispensable to its existence. It is that the geological formations of the river do not in- dicate the presence of gold-bearing ground on its banks. This has saved the river from the miners and still protects it, and it is the only thing that does protect it 5 for had gold been found in any abundance on the river, the McCloud would have gone the way of its fellows, the Yuba, the 222 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Feather, and the American, and nothing could have saved these mag- nificent spawning grounds from entire destruction. The river itself also possesses some great advantages. Being supplied chiefly by springs, the largest of which is formed by the melting snow of Mount Shasta, it is not subject to fluctuations, but remains at the same height all through the egg-taking season, seldom rising or falling even an inch during the whole time. As the parent salmon are taken in the river, and we build a dam across the river to stop the salmon in front of the fishery, and as we take the river water into the hatching house to hatch the eggs with, it will be seen at once what a desirable thing it is to be situated on a river that never rises or falls during the working season. The size of the river is also an advantage, it being large enough to attract vast numbers of salmon up its channel, and at the same time not being so large as to be unmanageable when the bridge is being built and the parent salmon are being caught. The temperature also of the river seems to be just right for bringing forward healthy embryos, and hatching hardy fish, which, however, is only what one would ex- pect from a stream which furnishes the natural and favorite spawning grounds of the salmon of a great river. I will conclude the enumeration of the advantages of location pos- sessed by the McOloud Eiver station, by the mention of one more, viz, the presence of the native Indians. This at first sight seems perhaps a doubtful advantage; but what could we have done without the Indians'? They helped us in our extremity during the first season when we could get no other help. They helped us the next year and every succeeding year in building the dam across the river when the water was too cold and deep and swift for white men to work in it. They have been inval- uable, when the spawning season came, for handling the parent salmon, both when the seine is drawn in and during the operation of taking the eggs ; and we have never found any one who could take the place of the Indian women in picking over the salmon eggs in the hatching troughs, which is done every day to separate the dead ones from the live ones. The Indians have also been of the utmost service in times of emergency, and on occasions of alarming accidents, as, for example, on the memora- ble 18th of September, 1881, when the large current wheel, which fur- nished the whole supply of water for the hatching house, went to pieces, and the Indians saved our seven million salmon eggs by bringing water from the river in buckets from eleven o'clock one morning until four o'clock the next morning without taking any rest. Indeed, I think I may safely say that the white men at the station would have had a very hard time to do their work without the assistance of the Indians, if indeed they could have done it at all, and to make a success of it as they have for ten consecutive years. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CALIFORNIA SALMON. Passing now to the salmon themselves, a few words about their char- acteristics and history may not be out of place. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 223 The California salmon was formerly known as "Salmo quinnat." It is now called " Oncorhyncus choiieJ;a. n It is, when prime, a handsome silvery fish, resembling - very much in shape and general appearance the salmon of the Atlantic coast of both America and Europe (Salmo solar), except that it has dark spots on its back and sides that do not belong to Sal mo solar. The Sacramento salmon, which is the same fish which is found in the Columbia and other rivers on the Pacific coast in great quantities, averages in weight in the Sacramento River from fifteen to twenty pounds, and is found in that river every month of the year, being in best condition during the three winter months, and in the greatest abun- dance, probaly, in March, April, and August. When the salmon enter the Sacramento from the ocean they are, as just mentioned, handsome, silvery fish, but they fall off in looks and quality every week after they leave tide- water and enter upon their journey up the river to their spawn- ing grounds. When we take them full of ripe eggs, in September, at the hatching station, they are mostly of a dark-olive color, the females being distended with spawn, and the males often very thin and deep, sometimes almost black, and frequently having a broad red band on their sides extending their whole length from head to tail. After spawn- ing, and sometimes before, both sexes become emaciated, weak, and covered with white spots. At this stage the salt water of the ocean is the only thing that will revive them ; and those that do not reach it in season, and this includes about all that go up the McCloud Eiver, die of sickness and exhaustion. METHOD OF CAPTURING PARENT SALMON. Our methods of capturing the parent salmon and confining them, for the purpose of securing their eggs, have been various. The first year, besides hauling the seine for them, we obtained what we could from the fish-baskets of the Indians. This latter method fur- nished only a meager and precarious supply, aud was entirely abandoned after the first season. The second year I had to adopt some means of keeping the salmon in confinement after they were caught, because, in order to secure a large number of eggs, I began fishing several weeks before the beginning of the spawning season. I hoped, by catching the salmon early in the reason and confining them, to have a large number on hand when the spawning season came. This plan, however, only led to a succession of disappointments j for wherever we put the salmon they would die in a week or two. We put them in large plank boxes anchored in the river, with great apertures in them to insure a good circulation of water. - We built capacious pens in the river by driving stakes into the bed of the stream ; we built ponds on shore, supplied with a constant stream of river water, and we tried every expedient we could think of to keep them alive in confinement, but all to no avail. The imprisoned fish would spend their whole time in efforts to escape, and in not many days 224 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. would be found dead in their pens, in most eases, probably, in conse- quence of their bruises. Day after day and week after week they died. The more we caught the more we lost ; until at last about as many died daily as we succeeded in catching, and though we took that year about two million eggs, we should probably have taken nearly, if not fully, as many if we had not drawn the seine at all until the spawning season began. THE BRIDGE AND DAM ACROSS THE RIVER. The evident impossibility of ever successfully confining the parent salmon in ponds or pens made the necessity imperative of devising some sort of means for collecting the spawning fish together in large numbers. The object of this station was to take salmon eggs on a large scale, and if only two million could be secured at a season the enterprise would be virtually a failure. Besides this, the immense amount of labor and expense that was incurred in 1873 in getting the two million eggs of that year seemed exceedingly disproportionate to the number of eggs obtained. At this critical juncture a new idea sug- gested itself, which was to put a dam across the river at the fishery, which would prevent the salmon from ascending the river any higher. Their irrepressible instinct to push up the stream would, it was thought, prevent them from going down the river, and the dam keeping them from going up any further, it was believed that the salmon would col- lect in great quantities in front of the fishery. This idea was carried into practice in the season of 1874, and it fulfilled our highest expecta- tions. The impassable dam was built, the river closed to the ascent of the breeding salmon in July, and before the spawning season commenced, to our great delight, they were collected in vast quantities below the dam. The great problem of securing salmon eggs on a large scale was solved. We experienced the great relief which comes when the pros- pect of assured success takes the place of the prospect of failure. Dur- ing the spawning season of that year we took &,7o0,000 eggs. The crisis was so important and the effect of our project so novel and inter- esting, that perhaps I may be excused for quoting something relating to the subject from my report of operations for the year 1874 : "With the time and men at my command, the construction of the bridge and dam was an undertaking of no small magnitude. The point se- lected for the purpose was just below the hatching-tents, where the river begins to break over a series of rapids. It was necessary to do the work here or at some similar place in order to avoid the deep holes and irregularities of the river-bed which prevailed everywhere in the channel. This necessity, however, involved the disadvantage of hav- ing very swift water to work in — so swift indeed that a boat could not be held for a moment along the whole line of the biidge without being made fast to the shore. This disadvantage was the more serious be- cause the snow-water which forms the river is so cold that the men working in it, as they were obliged to, a great deal of the time up to BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 225 their waists and often up to their necks, could not endure it long with- out severe suffering - . Fortunately, I had with me a force of resolute men who were daunted at nothing-, and through their courage and reso- lution these and all other obstacles were overcome. The space to be bridged over was one hundred and five feet, or, with the corral exten- sion, one hundred and fifty feet. The line was made across the river at nearly right angles with the current. The water was from four to eight feet deep, and running with tremendous force. The river-bed was of loose, detached rocks, varying from a pound to half a ton in weight. We began the work by felling logs in the woods, cutting them into twelve-foot lengths and hewing off' the ends square. Three of these lengths were then laid together horizontally and in the form of a tri- angle, and the ends firmly pinned together with wooden pins. Another similar triangle was then made and placed over the first, then another and another, and so on till the structure reached the required height to support the bridge at a suitable distance above the surface of the water. When this was finished the men waded out with it, with great labor, to its place in the river and fastened it there with cables till it was banked up with rocks, and the hollow space inside was also filled with rocks. When this was done, we had a solid stone pier, resting on the bottom of the river, which the current was unable to move. Another similar pier was then built and placed, and then another and another at suitable intervals, till the other side of the river was reached. The tops of the piers were then connected with logs hewn square and pinned to the piers with strong wooden pins. This completed the bridge. When it is remembered that we had neither horses nor derricks, but relied entirely on our physical strength to do all the work, it will be seen that it was no trifling undertaking. Nothing was yet accomplished, however, in arresting the passage of the salmon, as the space below the bridge was, of course, except at the piers, entirely open to them. It, therefore, now remained to dam the rapid and powerful current so that the salmon could not pass. After some deliberation it was decided to make this dam of poles about two inches in diameter, placed nearly ver- tically in the river, with the upper ends resting on the side of the bridge, and the lower ends against the bottom of the river. To facilitate the work of placing the poles, we concluded to make a regular fence of them, laying poles side by side about one inch and a half apart, and inserting both ends of each pole into a strong cross-piece of hewn timber run- ning at right-angles with the poles. This having been decided on, the next thing was to get the poles. We required a thousand. The near- est that could be found in any quantity were in a forest four miles off, over a rough mountain trail. I immediately fitted out an expedition with axes, blankets, and provisions for four days. The thermometer was ranging at that time between 100° and 110° in the shade. In the sun it was hot enough to cook eggs. This made the work of lumbering rather severe ; but at the end of the four days the expedition returned, Bull U. S. F. C, 82 15 March 14, 1883. 226 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. having procured several hundred poles. These the choppers packed on their shoulders to the nearest point on the stage-road, whence they were brought to camp by the mule-teams returning from Oregon. I contin- ued sending to this spot for poles until they reported the stock ex- hausted. We then scoured the woods in the immediate neighborhood of the camp and gathered in all the scattering ones that could be found until these were gone. There were still many more needed, which were obtained from various quarters and packed into camp on the shoulders of the men employed. " The poles having been secured, the fence which was to form the dam was constructed on shore in sections, which when completed were taken to the bridge and dropped into the water at an angle of perhaps thirty degrees with the perpendicular of the bridge. The upper side of each section being now firmly spiked to the timbers of the bridge, the current striking it at the angle mentioned forced the bottom of the fence very tightly against the river-bed. All the sections being thus placed, rocks were then piled up around the bottom of the fence and thrust into any crevices which the salmon might get through; and this work having been extended entirely across the river, the bridge and dam were rendered complete. "About four o'clock in the afternoon, a few days after, the passage of the salmon was obstructed, and before the corrals were made, it was announced that the salmon were making their first assault upon the dam. The whole camp collected on the bridge to witness the attack. It was a sight never to be forgotten. For several rods below the bridge the sal- mon formed one black, writhing mass of life. Piled together, one above another, they charged in solid columns against the bridge and dam, which trembled and shook continually under their blows. Not daunted by their repeated failures, they led attack after attack upon the fence, one column succeeding as another fell b.tck. Encouraged by their num- ber, and urged on by their irrepressible instinct, they entirely disre- garded the observers on the bridge, and struggled at their very best to pass the unwonted obstruction. Finding the fence impassable, many fell back a little and tried to jump the bridge. This several succeeded in doing, sometimes violently striking the men on the bridge in their leaps, and sometimes actually jumping between their feet. For an hour and a half this fierce assault continued, when, exhausted by their efforts and discouraged by many failures, they fell back to the deep hole just below the rapids, arrested, for the first time since the McCloud formed its chan- nel, in their progress up the river. The Indians, who were watching their movements, were wild with excitement over this scene, which, even after a residence of centuries on the river, was new to them." We had no difficulty after this in obtaining all the salmon that were wanted. The subsequent season, having made the dam or fence a lit- tle closer and higher, so that no salmon whatever could get by, we took 8,000,000 eggs, and in 1878 we took 14,000,000, and could have taken BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 227 probably 20,000,000 if necessary. We always after tlii s adopted the same plan of patting a barricade across the river, and by that means collect- ing the parent salmon opposite the fishery, and the plan was always followed by the same magnificent results. TAKING AND MATURING THE EGGS. I will now pass from the capture of the fish to the taking of the eggs. About the middle of August we are in the habit of hauling the seine every two or three days to examine the condition of the breeding sal- mon. During the third week in August we generally find one or two ripe females, and usually more than that number of males, but it is almost always a week after this that the ripe fish appear in sufficient numbers to warrant our beginning on the work of collecting eggs. There is an extreme variation of about ten days in the time of the beginning of spawn- ing season proper, in different years, but by the first week in Septem- ber we are always fairly under way. Several days before this time arrives we build, just above where the net is drawn, and extending over the water's edge, a commodious brush house, which is simply a frame- work of sufficient size, covered and inclosed with green boughs. In this house the work of taking the salmon eggs is done. The covering with green boughs is accomplished by Indians and is always an admirable piece of work, and the whole structure answers its purpose to perfection. A few feet out in the river from the water's edge are sunk three large covered wooden corrals or pens, for holding the parent salmon when taken from the net preparatory to spawning. A plank floor is built out from the shore to the corrals, the whole being covered by the green boughs. When the seine is drawn ashore, six or eight men immediately proceed to examine the fish to see if they are ripe. The unripe ones are thrown back into the river. The ripe fish are put in the corrals, one sex in one compartment, the other in another one. We continue to haul the seine till it is thought that enough ripe fish have been secured, and then the fishermen if at night haul off and retire; if in the daytime, they proceed to take the eggs. After I got this part of the work systematized we took a million eggs a day with great ease, and could have taken many more if necessary. So well is the work arranged now and so thoroughly does every man understand and perform his part, that the spawning gang will sometimes fill sixty pans, that is spawn sixty females, in sixty min- utes. Any fish breeder reading this will appreciate the rapidity and efficiency with which the work must be done to accomplish this result, especially when it is added that every particular about the taking and impregnating is minutely and carefully attended to, so that scarcely an egg in the whole sixty pans is lost from injury or from undue lack of impregnation. When the eggs have stood a sufficient length of time, they are taken to the hatchiug house in buckets, and after being meas- ured are put in the hatching troughs. As I have already mentioned, our first and primitive hatching works in 228 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 1872, put up iu the hurry of the moment, consisted only of a set of hatch- ing-troughs under the open sky, without a roof, and with only a board over each trough to protect the contents from the rays of the sun. The next year (1873), in order to afford shelter to the hatching troughs, which had now been removed to the bank of the McCloud River and much extended, I put up two large tents over the troughs. Under these tents the eggs were matured for several years till 187G, when I built a large and substantial hatching house in which the work of bring- ing forward the eggs was performed, until it was carried away by the great floods of February, 1S81. In the following summer (1881) a new, large, and very convenient hatching house was erected on higher ground, and still remains the central structure of the McCloud River salmon- breeding station. To this hatching house we now bring the impregnated salmon eggs, and pour them into the deep wire trays now in use there. These trays or baskets easily hold thirty thousand eggs apiece. The hatching apparatus used is that which is commonly called the Williamson trough, the principle of which is to force the water up through the eggs instead of flowing the water over the eggs as was formerly done. By adopting this principle the eggs can be put in the trays or baskets several layers deep. Our baskets are six inches deep and we till them nearly three-quarters full of eggs. The eggs appear to suffer no injury from being piled upon one another to such an extent, owing probably to their being buoyed up by the water which is being forced upwards through them. They do not suffer at all from suffocation, for the same reason. We can put over 30,000 in a tray, and consequently are enabled to mature several million in a comparatively small space. Iu illustration of this I will say that in the hatching house at the McCloud station there have been at one time as many salmon eggs in process of hatching as would have covered, with the old method of shallow trays, two acres of ground. All fish culturists know that as soon as fish eggs are laid in the hatch- ing troughs the daily examination of them and the removal of dead eggs must begin. With the small force of experienced hands at our command during the earlier history of the station, I found some difficulty in get- ting the eggs picked over in a satisfactory manner, the work being of such a delicate character that hardly any one could be found careful enough and of sufficiently delicate touch to go through the daily pick- ing over of the eggs without killing them; beginners sometimes causing more dead eggs to appear each day than they had removed on the pre- vious day. In this emergency the Indian girls and women came to the rescue and furnished precisely the kind of work that was wanted. From that time we had no more trouble about getting the dead eggs picked out. The delicate fingers and patient natures of the Indian women accomplished the work to perfection. These Indian women come regu- larly to the fishery every year when the proper season arrives and pick BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 229 over the eggs daily until the season for hatching arrives or the eggs are sent oft' for distribution. Some of them, I think, have picked over the eggs every year of the ten years that the station has been in exist, ence on the river, and the station could hardly get through the picking season without them. The eggs develop rapidly, and very soon after the hatching troughs begin to fill up, it becomes necessary to prepare for packing them. The packing of a few thousand salmon eggs is not a very laborious task, but the packing of a million for a journey across the North American continent is a considerable undertaking. In 1878 8,000,000 eggs were packed and forwarded from this station, entirely filling two large freight cars. No little preparation is required for packing eggs on so large a scale. Strange to say, no suitable moss for packing is to be found within 50 or 60 miles of the fishery, and the only moss that I know of, even as near as that, is found at the base of Mount Shasta, and nowhere else. Accordingly, we have to get our packing moss gathered at this great distance, and brought to the station on mule teams. As soon as it arrives it is washed and twice picked over very carefully, after which it forms an excellent packing material. A suitable outside packing around the box of moss and eggs, to protect them from changes of tem- perature, has always been an important desideratum with us. Sawdust is practically unattainable, the cost of getting it to the station being too great. The first year (1872) we used hay. The second year (1873) we also used hay, and with the comparatively few eggs distributed those years, the expense was not very burdensome, but when we came to pack 4,000,000 eggs the next year (1874) it became essential to look around for some material for the outside packing less expensive than hay, for which we then paid $00 a ton. The Indians again came to the rescue in this emergency. Armed with knives of every description that they could find, they went out into the hills, and cut down several tons of the ferns which grow abundantly about the fishery, and brought them into camp. These ferns made an excellent packing material, and the cost was nothing like the cost of hay. We have used the ferns every year since, to pack and crate the boxes of eggs in. In 1874, the first year that salmon eggs were packed on a large scale, another emergency connected with the packing developed itself. It arose from the fact that so many eggs must be forwarded at once. A car-load must be got ready and packed at one time. No plan that I had hitherto adopted would accomplish the packing of so many eggs in so short a time. So this year a division of labor was effected, and a system adopted substantially as follows : At the upper end of the hatch- ing-house four packing-boxes are placed side by side, and at each box stands a man who packs the eggs in the box, and opposite him another man who helps spread the moss. At each end of the line of packers are seated four Indian girls with nippers to pick out the dead eggs. Just below the packers are two large tubs, kept full by a constantly-running 230 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION". stream of water, at each of Nvliick is stationed a man with a gauged dipper to measure the eggs in. Besides these, there are two other men in the hatching-house, whose business it is to bring the eggs to the meas- urer at the tubs, and two or three others on the other side of the packers to keep them supplied with moss and mosquito bar for packing. There is also one other man, who sits on one of the rafters overhead, looking down on the whole, and who keeps count of the number of layers of eggs that are put in each box. When everything is ready to proceed with the packing, the two men in the hatching-house bring the eggs to the measurers and pour them into the tubs. Here the stream of water running through the tubs cleanses them, and they are dipped out with long-handled tin measures into pans of water, which are placed on a bench in front of the Indian pickers who pick out the dead ones. When the pans have been thoroughly freed from dead eggs, they are placed on another bench, within reach of the packers, who take them up and strew their contents very skillfully and neatly over the bottom of the packing box, a layer of moss and one thickness of mosquito bar having previously been carefully placed in the box for the eggs to rest on. The packers immediately cover up this first layer of eggs with another piece of mosquito bar and a layer of moss, and, having placed a piece of mos- quito bar over the moss, they proceed as before with another pan of eggs, and so on till the requisite number of layers of eggs have been packed, when the box is removed and another empty one substituted in its place, and the packing goes on. By the method just described we were enabled to pack the eggs very rapidly, three quarters of a million of eggs having frequently been packed in an hour, and after this we had no trouble in getting a car-load of eggs ready in a very short time. THE WATER SUPPLY. The supply of water which was furnished by the little brook on which we operated the first year was of course wholly inadequate for the ma- turing of salmon eggs on a large scale, besides being unsuitable for the purpose in consequence of its occasional high temperature and liability to disturbances. I therefore gave up all thonghts of using it another year, and resolved that the next season I would use the river water for the hatching-house, raising it to the necessary height by some device not yet determined upon. Accordingly the next summer I moved the cabin and hatching-trough and all onr belongings from the brook where we spent the first season to the north bank of the McCloud River, close to the water's edge. The device which I finally concluded upon for rais- ing water from the river was a current wheel. The first wheel we built was only 12 feet in circumference and raised the water only about 7 feet, but by erecting the hatching-troughs on a low bar not many inches above the level of the river's surface, we made this height (or fall) answer our purpose very well. The wheel worked admirably, and I cannot too highly BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 231 recommend it for similar uses in a stream that is free from driftwood during the hatching season, and is not subject to too great fluctuations. I have used a current wheel to supply the hatching-house with water at this station for ten successive seasons without a failure. The water supply furnished by the wheel this second season (1ST.'?) was ample and constant, and, being taken directly from the very spawn- ing grounds of the salmon themselves, was eminently adapted to its pur- pose. Words can hardly describe the immense relief it was to be freed from the annoyances and constant anxiety caused the year before by trying to do our work on the little, warm, muddy brook which furnished the water for the hatching-troughs. Not a drawback of any serious character once occurred in the maturing of the eggs this year, but as soon as they were sent off, it now being the beginning of the rainy sea- son, we had to take down the tents which covered the hatching-troughs and remove tents, troughs, and all to higher ground for the winter, to save them from being carried away by the rising river, which soon came up many feet over the rocky bar where they had stood. In the mean time the wheel which was erected on two stationary piers in the river had to be abandoned to its fate, and was soon carried by the swift torrent out of sight. The next two years, 1874 and 1875, the water supply was obtained and the hatching of the eggs conducted as in the season of 1873. Both years were a great success as far as the main object of the station was con- cerned, viz, the obtaining and maturing of salmon eggs, but each sea- son^ operations involved the labor and expense of tearing down our hatching apparatus every fall and re-erecting it the next spring, which seemed, and which was, unnecessary. The considerations that had caused me to submit to it were these: If a permanent hatching-house were built, it would be necessary to place it, of course, high enough above the water to prevent its being carried away by the rise in the river, which occurs every year during the rainy season. I had thought that a current wheel large enough to raise the water to this height might be unmanageable, but the next year (187G) I resolved to try it. Accordingly, having selected a level spot 15 feet above the summer level of the river, I put up a permanent and very substantial building upon it for a hatching-house, and built a wheel 27 feet in diameter, in a current several rods above the house. This raised the water high enough to su]jply the hatching-house, and so far all went very well, but a sudden rise in the river during the next rainy season carried off' the wheel and a new one had to be built the next year. The loss of so many wheels demonstrated pretty effectually that some change ought to be made, so the next year I put the wheel on two large flat-boats, or rather between two flat-boats, with the ends of the shaft resting on standards erected on the boat. This seemed to solve the question of a water supply for the present, and it did practi- cally, although after the salmon-breeding station was carried away by 232 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the flood of 1S81, it became necessary to build the new hatching-bouse ou still higher ground than the old one, This in time necessitated the building of a correspondingly larger wheel in order to raise the water to the increased height now demanded. The wheel that was then constructed is now running and furnishes the water for the hatching- house. It is 32 feet in diameter and rests on boats 36 feet long and 8 feet wide. Its lifting capacity is 50,000 foot-pounds a minute. RESULTS OF OPERATIONS AT SALMON- BREEDING STATION. In the eleven years since the salmon-breeding station has been iu operation, 07,000,000 eggs have been taken, most of which have been distributed in the various States of the Union. Several million, how- ever, have been sent to foreign countries, including Germany, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Eussia, Belgium, Holland, Canada, New Zea- land, Australia, and the Sandwich Islands. About 15,000,000 have been hatched at the station, and the young fish placed iu the McCloud and other tributaries of the Sacramento Biver. So great have been the benefits of this restocking of the Sacramento that the statistics of the salmon fisheries on the Sacramento show that the annual salmon catch of the river has increased 5,000,000 pounds during the last few years. UNITED STATES TROUT PONDS. In July, 1879, 1 received instructions from the United States Commis- sioner of Fisheries to establish a station on the McCloud Biver, for taking and distributing the eggs of the black spotted McCloud Biver trout (Salvelinus iridea). After a careful and thorough exploration of the McCloud for 17 miles from its mouth, a suitable place was found near the mouth of a creek on the west side of the river, 4 miles above the salmon fishery. This creek is fed by a spring, and furnishes a large sup- ply of cold water in the hottest aud dryest time in summer. A trout- breeding station was built here in the fall of 1879, from which 388,000 trout eggs were distributed during the next spawning season (Janu- ary-May, 1880). An immense deal of labor was expended here this year (1880) in catching parent trout for the ponds, and we were so well rewarded for our pains that by Christmas there was gathered here the finest collection of live trout in America, and probably in the world, consisting of 3,000 full-grown fisli, averaging in weight 3 pounds apiece, all in good health and in fine condition. In February, 1881, just as the trout were beginning to spawn, there came the great Hood of that year and washed such enormous quantities of mud into the ponds that many trout were killed, and Mr. Myron Green, who had charge of the station, was unable to send away more than 261,000 eggs. During this year (1881) the losses among the parent trout were made lip as far as possible by persistent fishing in the river, and at the next spawning season 337,500 more egga were distributed. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 233 The fishing- for parent trout in the river is now being continued, in order to add to the stock already in the ponds, which probably contain at present about three tons weight of healthy and line-looking fish. I will conclude this report by giving an annual record of the most important events at the two stations of the United States Fish Com- mission on the McCloud Eiver, from the beginning of operations (1872) up to the present time (18S2). ANNUAL RECORD OF OPERATIONS AT THE FISII-BREEDINGr STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION ON THE MCCLOUD RIVER. 1872. The spawning grounds of the Sacramento salmon discovered in the McCloud Eiver. A small station for taking salmon eggs, tempora- rily established on a stream on the west side of the McCloud. Operations were begun too late in the season to accomplish any con- siderable results this year, but 30,000 eggs were sent to the Atlantic coast, and the very important fact was established that salmon eggs could make the overland journey to the Atlantic in safety. 1873. Salmon-breeding station moved to the bank of the McCloud Eiver. Hostile demonstrations were made by the natives to prevent the work from going on. Eeferriug to this, my report for the year says: "Our attempt to locate a camp on the river bank was received by the Indians with furious and threatening demonstrations. They had until this time succeeded in keeping white men from the river, with the ex- ception of one settler, a Mr. Crooks, whom they murdered a few weeks after our arrival. Their success thus far in keeping white men off had given them a good deal of assurance, and they evidently entertained the belief that they should continue, like their ancestors before them, to keep the McCloud Eiver from being desecrated by the presence of white men. Their resentment was consequently very violent when they saw us bringing our house and tents and camp-belongings to the edge of the river, and they spent the whole day in resentful demonstrations, or, as Mr. Woodbury expressed it, in trying to drive us off. Had they thought they could have succeeded in driving us off with impunity to themselves, they undoubtedly would have done so, and would have hesi- tated at nothing to accomplish their object; but the terrible punishments which they have suffered from the hands of the whites for past mis- deeds are undoubtedly too fresh in their memories to allow them to attempt any open or punishable violence. So, at night, they went off, and seemed subsequently to accept in general the situation." Eaised the water for the hatching-house from the river by means of a current-wheel 12 feet in diameter. Endeavored unsuccessfully to keep 234 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. salmon alive in corrals and pens and artificial ponds. Used a large tent for a hatching-bouse. Enlarged the dwelling-house. Hatched some eggs in boxes floating horizontally in the river. Took and distributed 2,000,000 eggs. 1S74. Used deep trays exclusively in maturing the salmon eggs. Built a bridge and rack across the river just above the seining ground to obstruct the ascent of the salmon. This experiment proved very successful and resulted iu a yield for the season of 5,750,000 eggs. 1875. Built large dwelling-house this year and made various improvements. Took 8,(510,000 eggs. In December of this year President Grant made a United States reservation of the fishery premises by public proclama- tion. 1876. Abandoned the use of tents and built a permanent hatching-house, 100 feet long by 20 feet wide. Erected a current- wheel 17 feet in diam- eter. Salmon eggs abundant. Took 1,000,000 eggs for the hatching- house in one day; took 7,500,000 eggs in all. Salmon eggs were sent this year to New Zealand and to the Sand- wich Islands. The eggs shipped East this year were forwarded in a freight car filled with ice, and traveling with passenger trains. The re- sult was very successful, the loss in transportation across the continent being extremely small. 1877. Used floating flat-boats to support the wheel instead of stationary piers. Result very favorable, the wheel rising and falling with the river, and consequently free from the danger of being carried away by high water. Had a guard of soldiers on the McCloud River this year. Took 7,000,000 salmon eggs, of which some were sent to England, France, Germany, Holland, Russia, Australia, and New Zealand. Only 2i per cent, loss in transportation to the Atlantic States. Two million young salmon returned to the tributaries of the Sacramento. The Co- lumbia River salmon-hatching establishment was built this year on the Clackamas River, Oregon, by the writer. 1878. A post-office was established here this year and named Baird, and the post-office building built. A breakwater was constructed from the river to the high land behind the buildings to protect them from high water. A second hatching-house was built at a spring near the river. Salmon very abundant this year. In July the salmon, about sunset, were jumping in the river in great numbers. One hundred and forty- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 235 five were counted jumping in the space of a minute. There was an Indian war in Idaho this year. Dangerous threats of burning the fish- ery were made by neighboring Indians. All our men were furnished by the War Department with rifles and ammunition. 14,000,000 salmon eggs were taken and two car-loads sent East. 1879. The McCloud River trout-pond station was established this year. 7,000,000 salmon eggs were taken, of which 2,000,000 were hatched for the Sacramento, and the remainder sent to the Eastern States, Europe, and Australia. The Indian war being over, the Indians were friendly again. 1880. This was an uneventful year at the salmon fishery. Seven and a half million salmon eggs were taken. At the trout-breeding station 338,000 trout eggs were taken and a great number of large parent trout were caught in the river and added to the stock in the pond. Salmon were very abundant indeed in the McCloud River this year. 1881. The flood of February 3 carried away almost the whole of the salmon- breeding station. During the night of February 2 the rain, which had been falling in torrents for several days, seemed to increase in volume, and the river rose at the rate of a foot an hour. Long before midnight the water had risen above the danger mark, and at half past two on the morning of February 3 the large dwelling house toppled over with a great crash and was instantly swept down the river by the irresistible current, followed soon after by the other buildings. Nothing of any con- sequence was left. My report for the year says : " The men's house, where the workmen had eaten and slept for nine successive seasons, and which contained the original cabin, 12 by 14 feet, where the pioiieere of the United States Fish Commission lived during the first season of 1872 ; the hatching house which, with the tents that preceded it, had turned out 70,000,000 salmon eggs, the distribution of which reached from New Zealand to St. Petersburg; the large dwell- ing house, to which improvements and conveniences had been added each year for five years, these were all gone, every vestige of them, and noth- ing was to be seen in the direction where they stood except the wreck of the faithful wheel which through summers' suns and winters' rains had poured a hundred million gallons of water over the salmon eggs in the hatchery, and which now lay dismantled and ruined upon the flat- boats which had supported it and which were kept from escaping by two wire cables made fast to the river bank. u The river continued to rise the next forenoon, until it reached a max- imum height of 20 feet and 8 inches above its summer level. This, *)f course, is not a very extraordinary rise for a slow-moving river, but 236 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. when it is remembered that the McCloud is at low water a succession of cascades and rapids, having an average fall of 40 feet to the mile, it will be seen at once what a vast volume of water must have been poured into this rapid river within a very short time, and with what velocity it must have come to have raised it 26 feet when its natural fall was sweeping it out of the canon so swiftly. Those who saw this mighty volume of water at its highest point, rushing through its mountain canon with such speed, say that it was appalling, while the roar of the torrent was so deafening that persons standing side by side on the bank could not hear each other talk. "It must be over two centuries since the McCloud River rose, if ever, as high as it did last winter. There is very good evidence of this on the very spot where the fishery was located, for just behind the mess-house, and exactly under where the fishery flag floats with a good south breeze, is an Indian graveyard, where the venerable chiefs of the McClouds have been taken for burial for at least two hundred years, and there is no knowing how much longer. One-third of this grave yard was swept away last winter, and the ground below was strewn with dead men's bones. Now the fact that the Indians have been in the habit of burying their dead in this spot for two centuries proves that the river has never risen to the height of last winter's rise within that time, for nothing could induce Indians to bury their fathers where they thought there was the least danger of the sacred bones being disturbed by floods. "When the waters subsided, it became apparent what a clean sweep the river had made. Here and there the stumps of a few posts, broken off and worn down nearly to the ground by the drift wood rubbing over them, formed the only vestiges whatever to indicate that anything had ever existed there but the clean, rocky bar that the falling waters had left." An appropriation was made by Congress for rebuilding the station, and the work of restoration began in May and was completed in Sep- tember, the newly erected buildings being much better than those that were destroyed. Seven and a half million salmon eggs were taken this year. At the trout ponds many parent fish were killed by the mud which was carried by the very heavy rains into the ponds. Only 201,000 trout eggs were distributed this year. During the year many very large trout were caught in the river and put alive in the ponds. 1882. The appropriations came so late this year that very little was done at the salmon-breeding station. Four million salmon eggs were taken, and all hatched for the Sacramento River. At the trout ponds 337,500 eggs were taken, most of which were shipped east. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 237 FIVE AMERICAN * A I..TIO.M l».E IIV GERMANY. BY IIERR VOX BEIIR. [From Circular No. 8, 1882, of the German Fishery Association, Berlin, December 2, 1882.*] Since it became my honorable and highly appreciated duty, seven years ago, to attend to the current business of the German Fishery As- sociation, I have given my undivided attention to the question of bene- fiting our waters by introducing valuable fish from abroad. It was evident from the very beginning that this would have to be done cau- tiously. Fish-of prey — if I may use this expression — were, at least in North Germany, found in sufficient number, and there was therefore no necessity for introducing such as the Salmo liucho. Such a foreigner might spread too easily and rapidly, and injure those fish which we prize highly. My endeavors to introduce foreign fish have frequently been criticised. Shall I simply pass these attacks in silence ? I prefer to give, in brief outline, the causes of my endeavors and the thoughts which have guided me. The principal consideration has been the great benefit which has ac- crued to our country from the introduction of other foreign animals and plants. I simply refer to the two well-known books, "K. W. Volz, Beitrag zur Eulturpesckichte v (contributions to the history of culture), and " V. Helm, Kulturpflanzen unci Hausthiere, &c. v (cultivated plants and domestic animals, &c). Both these works report a long series of highly valuable plants and animals introduced into Germany from foreign countries, and when reviewing the material gathered in these two works, it may well be said that the majority of our cultivated plants and domestic animals have been introduced from foreign countries, either by ourselves or by our ancestors. This process of introducing foreign plants and animals was much slower and more difficult in olden times than now, when, thanks to steam and electricity, time and space offer no obstacles. Let us briefly enumerate a few of these introductions. Our present improved breed of horses is said to have come originally from the Kirgise steppes and the vast pasture lands of Central Asia; the history of the introduction of the merino sheep is well known ; the goat comes from Asia ; the chickens from India ; the turkey has been introduced from America at no very distant time, for in 15G1 a member flf the wealthy family of Fugger for the first time had a roast turkey grace his festive board ; the pheasant is said to come from Mingrelia, and the rabbit from Spain. And can it be said that Germany has any * "Flint' Amerikanische Salmoniden in Deutschland." Translated from the German by Herman Jacobsox. 238 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. reason to complain of having these animals introduced from foreign countries ? All that has been said applies still more to the vegetable kingdom. It is doubtful whether rye and oats are indigenous in Germany ; but wheat and barley have certainly been introduced from abroad; the lupine was probably introduced into Greece from Media at the time of Alexander the Great ; pease and lentils are assuredly of foreign origin ; but instead of enumerating all these plants it would simply have sufficed to utter the single word " potato." Here — where we speak specially of useful plants — would not be the place to mention the innumerable beautiful flowers which our gardens have received from foreign countries ; but we cannot dismiss this sub- ject without mentioning the number of magnificent trees which we have introduced from abroad ; thus quite recently from the Caucasus : Pinus nordmanniana ; from America: The Wellingtonia, Abies Donglasii, Abies nob His, &c. We have even gone so far as to work out an elaborate plan for planting and cultivating foreign trees in the Prussian Govern, ment forests ; there has also been some talk of a history of plants, which is to give, in systematized shape, the changes which plants have under- gone in their local conditions. And should fish be excluded from being artificially transported to and acclimatized in countries far from their home, at a time when we have learned how to safely transport the tender fish-eggs great dis- tances ? In Germany fish have for a long time been transported from one province to the other. During the middle ages this was frequently done by the monks, who never failed to make exceedingly practical fish-ponds near their beautifully and favorably situated monasteries; these ponds were so well arranged that even in our days their work has still been used. In South Germany especially the history of the spread- ing of many choice fish, such as the Saibling and the Zander (Amaul), is closely interwoven with the history of the monasteries. As far as I know, no fish have of late years been introduced from any great distance into foreign countries. If, as I expect to show in the following, I was successful in introduc- ing five new kinds of fish, 1 shall at once give the honor to whom it be- longs, my excellent friend inpiscibus, Prof. Spencer F. Baird, of Wash- ington. He is not only at the head of the United States Fish Commission, but also presides over the noble Smithsonian Institution, whose grand object is to increase and diffuse knowledge among men. Truly Profes- sor Baird has fulfilled the duties of his two great offices with this object in view, and our heartiest gratitude is herewith expressed. I am als GUANO. By B. FRANK GALLUP. [Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird. J Allow me to call your attention to a new industry started this season on this coast upon scientific principles, and which promises to be a suc- cess, providing there is a bounty allowed to the fishermen. I refer to the catching of Dogfish and making them into oil and guano. I have paid this season $1 per 100 fish, and the fishermen claim that the price is too low, yet it is all that I can afford to pay for them — in fact all they are worth. My views are that if the fishermen received a bounty in ad- dition to the above price, that many more would engage in the business, and add their mite to ridding the ocean of these destructive fish. I have this season converted the Pogie factory, formerty owned by Gallup & Holmes into using the fish, and can handle during their stay here say 1,000,000 fish, besides being instrumental in destroying twice that number in the young fish nearly matured. East Boothbay, Me., September 2G, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 247 METHOD AND RESULTS OF AN EFFORT TO COLLECT STATISTICS OF THE FISH TRADE AIVI> CONSUMPTION OF FISII THROUGH- OUT THE UNITED STATES. BY CIIAS. W. SMILEY. Iu July, 1879, it was proposed by Gen. F.A.Walker, Superintendent of the Tenth Census, and Prof. Spencer F. Baird, Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, to ascertain something of the extent and nature of the fish trade and consumption of fish throughout the entire United States. In consequence there was prepared a three-paged circular with blanks for answers, and containing eighteen brief but comprehensive questions, such as: 1. Do fish constitute an important article of diet in your town and in the adjacent country? 2. Where is the supply obtained % 3. Check on the following list the kinds commonly to be seen in the markets: (list given.) 4. What is the average retail price per pound ? 5. What kinds of fish are taken from your ponds and streams? Check on the following list: (list given.) S. Are salted and smoked fish sold ? 9. What kinds I Check on the following list: (list given.) 11. Are oysters brought to your place ? How are they brought — in shell, in tubs, in cans ? What is the usual price 1 16. Answer same questions for clams and lobsters. 18. Is fish guano in its various forms used by your farmers ? With this was sent to every postmaster in the United States a circu- lar letter asking the assistance of himself or some one familiar with the facts, and accompanied by a circular from the Postmaster-General, in- structing postmasters to furnish such information as could be given "without prejudice to the duties of their offices." An addressed re- turn envelope accompanied each circular. The result of this sending in general terms was as follows : Forty-one thousand five hundred and seventeen postmasters were addressed, from whom inside of two hundred days 16,996 replies were received, or 41 per cent. At the expiration of two hundred days it was deemed best to send again, to those who had not answered, precisely the same matter as had been sent before. This was done with a very gratifying result. Twenty-four thousand five hundred and twenty-one postmasters were addressed from whom, inside of two hundred days, 13,233 replies were received. In the six hundred and eighty days that have since elapsed, but 155 more replies have arrived. This is much less 248 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. than one per cent. The net result of two sendings was to get 73 per cent, of the reports desired : o ^ _* -fa O CI a p a . m r3 .K v CC k © CJ ■Q . * a ■3 g Sending. & CO CO U *c? . 99 43 M ^8 ■s- 2 CS e gM o O 3 o H 3 « 2 u CO s * O M ft ft 41, 517 16, 996 41 41 n 24,521 13, 233 54 32 Total 06, 038 30, 229 73 I should have preferred a third sending at the expiration of two hun- dred days from the second. I estimate that a third call on the remaining 11,133 offices might have produced about G,000 more replies, and brought the per cent, of results up to 86 per cent, of what was desired. I have taken two hundred days as the limit of returns. The number that arrive after that is very insignificant. But it will be valuable to know what results to expect earlier. Taking the total of 1G,996 replies which came in the first two hundred days, the percentage which came in each of the ten twenty-day periods was as follows : Twenty-day periods. B ■*J CO u s u CD ,2 a 9 "3 o a CD O (-1 O ft The days that had elapsed from the tiiuo of sending. Per cent, of what was destined to come, which had arrived each twenty-day period. 9,680 4,711 1,313 604 314 165 72 65 42 30 57 27 8 3J 2 1 i I I 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1G0 180 200 57 84 92 95J 97J 98i 99 99.J 99J 100 16, 99G 100 200 100 The return within one hundred days of 97i per cent, of all that would arrive within two hundred days, shows that when subsequent calls are to be made one hundred days is a very good limit to fix at which to send again. The receipts under the second call were even more pre- cipitate than the first, being augmented slightly by the driblets from the first call. It was as follows : BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 249 1 GO a c 3 s ,2 — :'(. - 5 1 c"H 5 g Pi? a o S I . Twenty-day periods. •- o v. o ft ~_~"3 £ - 3 .2 t*-. r "5 . £ „ o a e o a S ° -*— — >-~ T-. *~ s a u o :fj O DO '- -^ fc Ph H Ph 7, 802 2, 796 59J 21 20 40 59J[ 80^ 996 790 338 238 112 33 11 3 7* G 3 2 1 60 80 100 120 140 1G0 180 200 1-8 94 97 99 Seventh 100 Ninth Tenth The case under consideration was a semi-official call upon all the States and Territories, and the effect of the call upon the different sec- tions was very different. While the total yield of returns was 73 per cent, of the offices addressed, 95 per cent, of the Dakota offices an- swered, and but 61 per cent, of the Louisiana offices answered. The per cent, of answers for each State or Territory was as follows : Per cent. Dakota 95 Indian Territory 89 Washington 88 Wyoming 88 Idaho 87 Rhode Island 87 Utah 80 Massachusetts 85 Vermont 83 Oregon 83 Michigan 82 Kansas 81 Maine 81 Nevada 81 New Hampshire 81 Wisconsin 80 Connecticut 80 Minnesota 80 Montana 80 Florida 79 California 78 Iowa 7H Nehraska 78 Texas 78 Per cent. New Jersey 77 Illinois 77 Ohio 76 Colorado 75 New Mexico 73 Missouri 72 Indiana 71 North Carolina 70 New York 70 West Virginia 69 Maryland 69 Arizona 68 Arkansas 68 Pennsylvania 67 Delaware 66 Tennessee 65 Kentucky 65 Georgia 65 Mississippi 64 South Carolina 63 Alabama 63 Virginia 62 Louisiana 61 It was to be expected that States would answer according to their degree of education and intelligence, and this is no doubt an element, but some other element has entered in here to place five Western Terri- tories ahead of the best States. My own opinion is that the semi-offi- cial indorsement of the Postmaster-General had a far greater influence upon the new sections of the country than upon the older ; that new officers answered partly because of the official indorsement, and that old ones have become somewhat accustomed to disregard such in- dorsements. But why Dakota exceeded Arizona 27 per cent., and the 250 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Indian Territory exceeded New Mexico 16 per cent., I am unable to sug- gest, except the possibility of the loss of mails in transit, by fire, wreck- ing, robbing of mail coaches, etc. A grouping of the geographical sections yields some interesting re- sults : New England. Great Plain Region. Pacific Coast. The Northwest. Pert &nt. 67 85 . 83 81 . 81 , 80 Per c Utah mt. 95 89 8S 87 86 80 73 68 65 82 Per cent. Washington 88 Oregon 83 Michigan. .. Per cent. 82 81 Nevada 81 Wisconsin. . 80 Illinois Ohio ...... 78 ...... 78 77 7G Indiana . Average . 71 78 Middle States. j> Per cent. New.Tersey 77 New York 70 Pennsylvania , 67 Delaware 66 Average. 69 The Southwest Per cent. Texas 78 Missouri 72 Arkansas 68 Kentucky 65 Tennessee 65 Mississippi 64 Alabama 63 Louisiana 61 Average |8 The Southeast. Per cent Florida 79 North Carolina 70 Maryland 69 West Virginia 69 Georgia 65 South Carolina 63 Virginia 62 Average... 67 RECAPITULATION. New England Great Plain Region Pacific Coast The Northwest Middle States The Southwest..... The Southeast Total o CO 3 > . •g CO 5 H k - r3 £-c3 rs CO o f- 30 00 O o CO o a * a q o < 3,176 2,616 1,381 1,137 1, 528 1, 236 13, 157 10, 239 7,074 4,905 8,622 5, 865 0,579 4,386 41,517 30, 384 %1 . o ■SSs S 2 s~ o 82 82 81 78 69 68 67 For quantity, these results were entirely satisfactory. The quality of the replies was of all grades. A ver3 r large per cent., however, bore internal evidence of truthfulness. A wise discretion was needed in the compilation, but with skilled compilers excellent results could bo pro- duced. A discussion of methods of compilation, eliminating errors, etc., would be interesting, but cannot be included in this paper. Let it not bo supposed tlat these excellent results can be obtained only by government machinery. The official nature of this correspond- BULLETIN OF TIIE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 251 ence was a great aid, but I have obtained even better results from col- lege men upon matters relating to their colleges and from specialists concerning their specialties. I therefore feel free to protest against the careless and inefficient work of this sort so often done by both juiblic and private enterprise. Patience and perseverance in wise methods may not be all the qualifications that are necessary for good statistical work, but these are indispensable. Some of the suggestions to be made for success in collecting material are the following : I. Make the questions very clear, concise, and as few as possible. (Better send twice than totally break down by too long requests.) II. If but one class of persons can be addressed from each of whom an answer is especially desirable, send to all a first issue, to all who do not answer in 100 days a second issue, and to all who do not answer in 100 days more a third issue. III. If more than one class of persons can give the facts, address all of each class, and after about seventy -five days address the delinquents a second time. IV. Do not vary the matter sent the second time. Let it be an ex- act duplicate, and be sent just exactly as if it had not been previously issued. V. Leave blank lines between the questions, so that no other paper is needed for reply, and if it can be put on a postal furnish it, more for the sake of uniformity even than for inducing people to reply. VI. Always inclose an addressed envelope or postal for reply, and provide that there be no expense to the respondent for postage. VII. Remember that more or less of your circulars will be misdi- rected, lost in transit, fall into wrong hands, arrive during the absence or sickness of your correspondents, be crowded aside for later answer, or to get some needed information, and then inadvertently overlooked, and so, do not loose faith in human nature, but rather rejoice that amid so many contingencies you can get the material at all. Statistics are frequently laughed at, usually pushed aside as " dry n and sometimes analyzed to the serious discomfort of the author. At other times they are extolled and made the basis of the most important action. I am quite sure that these various treatments are usually just. Accurate and truthful statistics are very scarce, and, when found, very valuable. Figures often do misrepresent terribly, notwithstanding the charitable maxim that " figures never tell lies." Whoever has prepared statistics or tested them knows that the great and fruitful cause of bad statistics is in bad methods of collecting the data. The methods are not revealed on the face of the results, and hence the insidiousness of this cause. Mailing circulars does not con- stitute the most effective method, but if rightly managed it is cheapest. It is especially economical in government bureaus where postage costs nothing. The most effective method is by personal visitation of skilled agents. This, from its expense, is usually out of reach of private insti- 252 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. tutions, and often out of reach of government officers. The method of personal visitation I could extol very highly from personal experience and from close examination of results of that kind of work performed by others, but the present purpose has been to treat solely of the col- lection of material by mail. U. S. Fish Co^tmission, Washington, D. C, December 10, 1882. NOTES ON THE MENHADEN FISHERY. By OSCAR O. FRIEDLAENDEIC. [Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] Very large bodies of menhaden appeared on the Long Island coast between Fire Island and Rockaway Inlet last week, and all the boats did well. They were evidently driven in by sharks, as all the steamers caught lots of them. On Wednesdaj 7 our steamer, the Leonard Bright- man, caught 11 shares, none less than 8 feet long, among 180,000 men- haden. We must have had last week not less than 350 sharks at the works. The destruction of these ferocious fish by the menhaden fleet during the season must be between 20,000 and 50,000, which should not be lost sight of. Steamers fishing between Barnegat and Harrifurt re- port fish all along the coast. I shall be pleased to furnish you a full report of catcbes at the close of the season. My theory that the menhaden leave one locality for another to find better feeding ground seems now generally adopted. Between Cape May and Harrifurt, where the largest bodies of fat fish are found, they remain in spite of great numbers of steamers going there regularly to load up. Captain Church's steamers, especially the Humphrey, had a regular harvest there, loading up twice a week for three or four weeks past. If you determine to issue a circular regarding the seines, it strikes me that you may include not to commence fishing before May 15. Some opponents of the menhaden interest seem to believe that the spawning season commences about April 1 and extends to June. I differ with these gentlemen on that score on account of the poor quality of the menhaden caught early in May, but to satisfy these gentlemen and not to hurt our interests too much I do not doubt but all northern factories would submit to a recommendation from you not to open before May 15. 36 Broadway, Xew York, September 11, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. 253 LIFE IN THE SEA.* By J. B. MARTENS. [Teacher of natural sciences at the Seminary of St. Nikolas, Belgium.] Though the land is inhabited by thousands and thousands of differ- ent kinds of animals, differing in shape, size, and mode of life, life in the sea shows still greater abundance and variety. To further estab- lish this assertion shall be our object in a few plain remarks based upon natural history. I. — THE LARGEST ANIMALS LIVE IN THE WATER. The water surpasses the land in more respects than one. It occupies by far the larger portion of our globe ; so great, in fact, is the extent of water over its surface that it much rather deserves the name of "water globe" than that of terrestrial globe. If we could leave our earth and, floating through the vast expanse of the heavens, take a bird's-eye view of it, it "would, seen from a certain point, show hardly anything but the water. Not only does the water occupy a greater por- tion of our globe than the land, but the animals living in it are also larger. This agrees with a remarkable law of nature, according to which the size of the larger species of animals is proportionate to the extent of territory limited by nature. You will pardon me if we leave the sea for awhile to take a cursory view of the land ; and I hope you will be- come convinced of the actual existence of this law of nature. The Old World, comprising Europe, Asia, and Africa, is the largest continent rising from the water; and here we also find the largest quad- rupeds; the gigantic elephant, the heavy rhinoceros, the stout hippo- potamus, the long-necked giraffe, whose head is eighteen feet above the ground, the camel, so useful to travelers in the arid desert, and the horse, so strong and at the same time so docile in man's hand. The next largest continent is America. It was no misnomer when this continent, upon its discovery, received the name of the New World, for everything was new ; and the eyes of the astonished Europeans be- held plants and animals differing from anything they had seen hitherto. Here the large animals of the Old World were wanting ; not one was found as large as the horse or the ox. To-day all this is changed, for these useful animals, long since introduced into America, are numerous throughout all parts of the New World. In South America they even * Ret Leven in de Zee. Eene Voordracht door J. B. Martens, Kanunnik, leeraar van natuurlijke wetenschappcn aan hct Klein Seminarie, te Sint-Nikolaas ( Waas). 24mo., pp. 48. Translated from the Dutch by Herman Jacobsox. Note. — I have omitted numerous quotations of Scripture from the translation. — Editor. 254 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. live in a wild condition in herds of many thousands ; but they are all descended from horses and cattle originally introduced from Europe. The largest animals of the New World, living there when it was discov- ered, is the tapir, or water-hog, which in its appearance really resem- bles the hog somewhat, and the llama, or camel-sheep, so called because it seems to be a cross between the camel and the sheep. As regards the size of these two genuine American animals, they can only be com- pared to the donkey. We will now pass from the New World to Australia, the largest island of our globe, entirely surrounded by water, but as large as Europe, which forms such a small portion of the continent of the Old World. On this island — if such a name may properly be applied to so large an extent of land — we find horses and cattle, but they have been intro- duced there by man. The largest animal peculiar to this country is the kangaroo, a most remarkably shaped animal. Its fore feet are so short as to be entirely useless for walking; but all the longer and stronger are its hind feet, which it uses for leaping an almost incredible distance. As regards its size the kangaroo is surpassed by the American tapir and llama. One of the largest islands of our globe — next to Australia — is Mada- gascar, near the eastern coast of Africa, but as regards large animals pe- culiar to it, it is far surpassed even by Australia. Among the small islands of Oceanica, which in large number are scattered throughout the vast Pacific Ocean, there are some whose inhabitants know only birds and the water animals found near the coast. Land animals were unknown to them until the arrival of foreign navigators. The first animals thus introduced were unfortunately such as could easily have been spared — rats and mice — which often are very numerous in vessels, and which during the unloading of the cargo were brought on shore with some of the boxes or barrels. These examples will suffice to prove that the wider the natural limits of a land, the larger are the animals peculiar to it. In making a general comparison between land and water, we shall find another corroboration of this rule. In the ocean, which in extent far exceeds the land, life appears in much more colossal shape. The largest of all animals are the monsters of the deep. Man feels over- awed on seeing for the first time the enormous elephant; but what is the elephant compared to the whale, measuring from sixty to a hundred feet in length, and correspondingly thick 1 This animal, although out- wardly entirely resembling a fish, can, nevertheless, not be classed among the fish. It gives birth to live young ones, whilst fish lay eggs, from which the young come forth after some time. Fish breathe under the water through gills, whilst the whale has lungs, and therefore must, from time to time, come to the surface to breathe; if it remained under the water, it would either pine away or suffocate, like other animals which are accustomed to live in the open air. The head of the whale is BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISII COMMISSION. 255 disproportionately large, for it takes up one-third of its entire body. The mouth resembles a cave in which a company of twelve persons could easily find room. It may well be imagined what a strong current is reated in the water when the whale opens its mouth, carrying myriads of living beings into the open jaws of the monster. There are different kinds of whales. They arc found in nearly all parts of the ocean, and everywhere they appear quick in their movements. It is of course understood that they do not live in the immediate neigh- borhood of the coast, for such monsters require a great deal of space ; and in shallow waters they are as much exposed to the danger of found- ering as ships. Whenever such an event takes place, it gives rise to a terrible spectacle. The whale begins to struggle violently in order to get free ; the water is lashed into a seething foam by the desperate tossing of its tail ; and for a great distance the air resounds with the loud noise of the struggle. All these endeavors have frequently no other result than to cast the unfortunate animal still higher on the shore, where it falls into a sort of torpor and finally dies. Under the skin of the whale there is a thick layer of fat, from which, by pressure or warmth, an oily liquid flows. This liquid, known as train-oil, is used for many purposes, and from a single whale sometimes a hundred and twenty tons of train-oil are obtained. No wonder that these animals are so eagerly sought after, dangerous though this chase will always be ! How great is man in creation ! He engages in combat with this powerful monster, which, by a single blow with its tail, can cast a boat with all its crew high up into the air like a ball. " To me," man says, " belongs this immense animal with its huge body and all the oil it contains! The monster may crush my boat like a nut-shell, if it has the chance; but in spite of this I shall approach it so close that my hand shall deal the blow which ends its life!" And thus it really happens. IL — The sea is more densely populated than the land. So far we have only given attention to large animals ; but if we ex- amine every living being we must say that, as far as the number of its inhabitants is concerned, the water by far surpasses the land. Is there among the land animals any which are found in as large numbers as the herring and the codfish, which for centuries and centuries have been caught by hundreds of millions without any apparent diminution of their number? The farther north we go the fewer is the number of living beings on land; the faculty of growth seems to diminish, the plants shrink, and gradually animals become scarcer and scarcer. The sea, on the other hand, is always full of life ; and in latitudes where the soil, frozen nearly all the year round, does not yield any harvest to man, he finds ample compensation for this in the fisheries, for the water which laves these northern shores contains such an abundance of provisions that it can never be exhausted. 256 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. We must here state a remarkable observation relative to the animal kingdom, from which it will be seen how great a difference exists be- tween the population of the land and that of the sea. The large car- nivorous animals, like the lion, the tiger, &c, hardly ever live in herds; as a general rule one only finds a couple of them occupying a consider- able extent of territory. "This is our own exclusive kingdom," say the lion and lioness; "whoever hunts here is a poacher, and will have cause to regret his presumption. Here there is never too much game for us and our young ones." In the sea we find still greater carnivorous animals than the lion and the tiger. Among these we must mention the different kinds of dol- phins, which, from a scientific stand-point, must be classed with the •whales, because they also have lungs, and are obliged to come to the surface to breathe. Although not as large as the whale, the dolphin must nevertheless be classed among the large sea animals, for its length varies from eight to twenty and even forty feet. In olden times the dolphin was considered a friend of man. It was even said that the dol- phin could show affection ; but, to tell the truth, its only love is for prey, and the dolphins are in reality barbarous gluttons, which make said havoc among the inhabitants of the sea. This bloodthirsty animal does not live in couples like the carnivorous land animals, but they are found in large herds or schools. Could this be possible, if those animals on which these pirates of the sea live did not increase in extraordinary numbers 1 The whale also lives on live animals, but these are necessarily small, for its narrow throat is utterly disproportionate to its immense body. It may well be imagined in what enormous numbers, and how close together, these little marine animals must swim, if they are to satisfy the appetite of a monster like the whale. In passing from the whales and dolphins to the real fish, we find that they too, with hardly an exception, are carnivorous. It may truly be said that the water is an enormous battle-field, where life is only main- tained by constant slaughter. It is very easy to observe the cruel and gluttonous character of the fish. Put some of the little fish — for ex- ample, sticklebacks, so common in all our brooks — in a large glass full of water. As they are very lively, they will, in the beginning, afford more pleasure than gold fish, which please the eye by their beautiful red color, but which are so slow in their motions that one might think they are pining away or are sick. If a little worm has the misfortune to attract the attention of the sticklebacks, it is made the object of vio- lent attacks, and is soon devoured. If you put in the glass small fish, hardly a few days old, and not any larger than little worms, not one of them will escape these greedy gluttons. So greedy are these little wretches after flesh that if properly fed they can easily be tamed. As soon as some small pieces of flesh are thrown into the water they will approach rapidly, and by repeating this experiment four or five times, BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 257 they can be made to come to the surface as soon as they see the hand stretched out over the water. This spectacle, however, is soon followed by another pitiable one. The sticklebacks, confined within the narrow limits of the glass, do not find food enough, and begin to attack each other, and soon a desperate civil war is waging in the glass. The stronger pursue the weaker, and although they are not able to swallow them entire, they nevertheless inflict terrible wounds on them. Soon some of the fish may be observed which are hindered in their move- ments, because their tail has been bitten off either entirely or in part. The wound soon grows worse, and the poor little animal pines away and dies ; but even in its death agonies it is assailed by its cruel ene- mies. The fish continue this war until only two are left, which retire each to a different corner of the glass. Here they sit and watch each other with eyes full of hatred and envy ; and if one of them is bold enough to enter the domain of his adversary the result is a mortal combat. If this is the way the little sticklebacks act, what can we expect from the greedy pike, the scourge of the fresh water, or the dangerous shark, which reaches the size of the large dolphins and is continually roaming about the sea, devouring everything that comes in its way ? Woe to the unfortunate sailor who falls overboard in waters where there are sharks. If we consider that nearly all fish are carnivorous and live by robbing and murdering, we must confess that the population of the sea must be infinitely larger than that of the land, for otherwise fish would not find food enough. III. — A QUERY AND ITS ANSWER; FURTHER OBSERVATIONS. After the foregoing the reader will perhaps be tempted to say : " If that is the way things are carried on in the water, I am inclined to be- lieve that life in the water must eventually die out. How can any race of animals exist when such a continuous slaughter is going on ? How is it that the larger of these insatiable animals have not long ago entirely destroyed the smaller ones, finally to die themselves of starvation, leaving nothing but their skeletons floating in the waters of the ocean which has by that time become a howling wilderness ? " Those animals which are intended to serve as a prey to others have greater fecundity ; they produce more young ones than those animals which live on them ; the carnivorous animals are therefore never in want of food, which con- sists of weaker animals, and still the races of the latter do not die out. It will readily be seen how life in the water does not become extinct, in spite of all the scenes of murder which are there enacted, if we re- member that, as a general rule, the water animals increase much more than the land animals. There are animals which are destroyed in in- numerable quantities, both by their natural enemies and by man. Such are the herring and the codfish, whose number does not seem to have Bull. U. S. F. 0., 82 17 March 91, 1883. 258 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. materially decreased in the course of centuries. This will easily be un- derstood when we state the fact that a single herring produces 60,000 eggs, whilst the codfish matures as many as 2,000,000. It should also be remembered that the young fry hatched from these eggs grows up without any great difficulty. Young fish know how to take care of themselves the moment they leave the egg, and father and mother need not look after them. The work of the codfish would be truly enor- mous if, like the birds, it had to feed its innumerable young. The sea is not only enormously rich in fish, but also in other animals. In its depth there live and thrive a very large number of different kinds of animals, all differing from each other in size and shape, and fre- quently of such curious form that the limits of a brief lecture would not suffice even to give a mere enumeration of them. We must, however, devote a few words to the crustaceans, some kinds of which, like the lobster, the shrimp, and the crab, are well known to every one, because they form common articles of food. The crustaceans are a war-like race, encased in a coat of armor from head to heel. This armor consist* of a thick, chalky skin, whose joints are both strong and flexible. Besides this they are furnished with dif- ferent weapons of attack. Some have shears, which in the larger kinds may even prove dangerous to man ; others have a long and spear-like protuberance in front of their body; and all have powerful jaws, com- posed of many sharp and notched pieces. These rascals, fully armed and almost invulnerable, do not do as much harm as might be expected, for they prefer to feed on dead bodies, even such as have already begun to decompose. Do not let us criticise this morbid taste too harshly. The crustaceans and some other animals have the duty to keep the shores of the sea clean, and for this very reason they are possessed of this desire for decaying flesh. Everything which the waves of the sea cast on the shore, and which the action of the at- mosphere decomposes, falls a prey to the swarms of crustaceans, which can live out of the water for a considerable length of time. It sometimes happens that the waves cast the dead body of a whale ashore. What great injury might be caused thereby? The air, for a great distance, becomes impregnated with the mephitic exhalations aris- ing from this enormous mass of decaying flesh. There is danger that the entire region may become uninhabitable, for contagious diseases may be bred by the foul miasma. Hut all such fears are ungrounded. The crustaceans are on hand; and on these very occasions it will best be seen in what enormous num- bers they are found in the sea, especially near some of the northern coasts. From all directions they come marching in dense columns, and so great is the number of these gluttons, and so eager are they to get their fill, that all danger of the air becoming foul is speedily averted, and soon nothing is left of the enormous bulk but the skeleton. All this BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 259 flesh, which had begun to putrefy, has gone into the stomachs of num- berless crustaceans, and is, in part at least, to be transformed into live, healthy flesh. IV. — WlIAT WAS THOUGHT IN FORMER TIMES OF THE IIAEITABLE- NESS OF THE DEEP. Ought we not, iu our discourse, to make a difference between the sur- face of the sea and its depths ? " It may be," some one will say, " that life is richer in the sea than on land; this may apply not only to the shallow waters near the coast, but also to the surface of the open sea ; but in the great depths life cannot exist, or at least it cannot be varied iu form and number. Physics teach us that an animal thrown into the water must bear the weight of the entire quantity of water which rests upon it. For this reason the pressure, at a depth of 500 meters, is 50 kilograms per square centimeter. Is it possible that any living being can stand such a pressure without being crushed ? And what is 500 meters compared with the immeasurable depth of the ocean ! Depths of 3,000 and 4,000 meters are common, and there are even some of 8,000 and more meters. tl It is true that light will penetrate the water, but not without losing some of its strength ; and one generally calculates that a layer of water 100 meters thick is sufficient to entirely intercept the light. The sun- shine, therefore, only acts on the surface of the sea, and a short distance below the surface everything is shrouded iu impenetrable gloom. In that dark abyss no plants can grow and no animals can live; in its depths the ocean is nothing but an unmeasured, dark, and dead desert." Thus scientists talked hardly five and twenty years ago, and this idea was then very generally entertained. Experience had not taught this, for scientists had not descended into this dark abyss with a Ian- tern to examine it. They had not gone to sea and let down nets into the depths for the purpose of seeing what they would bring to light; for in those days suitable instruments for making such observations were unknown. Little more had been done than to sound a few depths with a lead weight covered with glue, so that objects at the bottom of the sea might stick to it, and thus be brought to light. This way of sounding was moreover so tedious a work that it was but rarely undertaken. The plummet must be tolerably heavy, for otherwise the current will not allow it and its interminable line to reach the depths. To let the plummet down was easy enough, but to haul it up again was a labor at which even sailors could easily work themselves weary. No, it was assuredly not from experience that scientists derived their idea that the depths of the sea were a dark desert ; they only reasoned so from speculations, to engage in which they need not leave their com- fortable studies. In our time it has been shown how deceptive such speculations may be, and how necessary it is to examine nature herself, 260 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. and, so to speak, catch her in the very act, if you wish to learn her mys- teries. Because we know that the animals of the upper world live under such and such conditions, we do not have the right to conclude there- from that the depths of the sea remain uninhabitable. V. — The first investigations of the depths of the sea. About a quarter of a century ago hardly anything was known re- garding the bottom of the sea. In 1855 the first serious attempt was made to study this subject, when it was proposed to connect England and America by means of a telegraph wire, which was to be laid across the depths of the Atlantic Ocean. To enter upon this important un- dertaking with some chance of success it became necessary to com- mission competent men to investigate the dark cavern of the sea with the view of finding suitable places where the cable could rest on even ground and avoid sharp rocks, where the motion of the water might cause it to wear out and break. These investigations were made from both sides of the Atlantic by the two countries mainly interested in the undertaking, England and the United States. The vessels sent out on this expedition were supplied with all the latest and most improved instruments, especially with an entirely new kind of plummets for deep-sea soundings. These consisted of a hol- low stem, with a lid at the lower end, alio wing mud and other matter from the bottom to pass in, but safely retaining everything that had passed in. This is much better than the glue which was formerly put on the plummet. This stem is not heavy. In order that it may sink perpen- dicularly, weights are attached to it in such a manner as to cause them to drop off the moment the plummet touches the bottom. This, of course, renders the hauling up much easier, but care should be takeu to have a good supply of these weights on board, as they can only serve once. It is hardly necessary to add that nowadays steam is employed in this work. " This is all very well," people will say; " but this will not aid in solv- ing the question whether there is any life in the depths of the sea. It would be the same as if a blind man wanted to assert that no birds ily in the air, because he does not happen to catch any in his outstretched hands." Let us not judge rashly. The first observations showed that the bot- tom of the ocean was sufficiently even for the object in view. The soundings also showed that the bottom was covered with very small shells, exceedingly thin and brittle. This circumstance raised the ques- tion : How did the little animals to which these shells belonged live ? Did they live near the surface, enjoying the light of the sun, and had these shells, therefore, slowly sunk to the bottom alter the death of the animals? Or had they lived in these dark depths where their remains had been found ? That this latter supposition might be true, was shown by the fact that starfish and other creeping animals were brought up BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 261 by the plummet, animals which certainly must have lived on the bot- tom. These starfish, when brought up, werealive, and in theirstomachs shellfish were found in an almost complete condition. It was then that scientists felt that the old belief of the uninhabitableness of the sea was giving way. About the same time some Swedish and Norwegian naturalists began to penetrate as far as possible into the depths of the sea with the com- mon fishing implements. They reached a depth of about 100 meters be- low the surface. According- to the old established opinion they ought, at that depth, not to have met with a single living being. But they found, on the contrary, that at this depth life was by no means want- ing; the animals which were brought up, moreover, were of strange kinds, and differed materially from those living near the surface. A new, and hitherto entirely unknown, world seemed to open out. No time was lost in gaining further knowledge of this interesting sub- ject, and it was not merely a thirst for knowledge which urged men to pursue these observations. The laying of the submarine cable between England and America had been accomplished, and new cables were being laid in many other parts of the sea ; it was therefore important to know in what company these expensive cables found themselves at the bottom of the ocean. It is well known that they consist of copper wires inclosed in gutta- percha tubes. Along these wires the electric spark was to travel, and there was a possibility that the tube might be injured. There might be among the inhabitants of the deep some which, attracted by the gutta-percha, could lay the metal wire bare, and thus render it useless. This suspicion was well founded, for, among the very large number of well-known marine animals, there were some which could bore holes not only in the wall of a vessel, but even in the hard rock. It was therefore necessary to learn what sort of animals lived at the bot- tom, and keep a strict watch over them. English naturalists directed the attention of their government to this important subject, and requested its aid in solving this problem. Their request was granted, and a man-of-war, the Lightning, was in 1868 placed at their disposal. This was an unfortunate selectiou, for the Lightning was a small vessel, entirely unsuited for the purpose which it was to serve. Nevertheless Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Wyville Thomson went on a cruise of two months in this vessel between Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Everything seemed to go against them ; the weather was very stormy nearly all the time, and there were but few days wheu they could progress with their labors ; and still they succeeded in this short time in recording some important and interesting observations. They endeavored to exteud their observations to greater depths than their Scandinavian colleagues. Although the sea in those parts has a depth of more than 1,000 meters, they found an abundance of life at the bottom, and the animals, which at that depth swam or crept about, did 2G2 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. not ouly belong to the simple kinds, but were of many different kinds ; among them also some fish. Like the Scandinavian scientists before them, they found that the ani- mals of the deep have quite a peculiar character, and differ in many re- spects very materially from those usually found near the English coasts ; they seemed to be closer related to those antediluvian animals known to us by the many petrefactions dug out from the earth. These observers expected to find the water in these depths to be nearly ice-cold, as it would be the nature of this water— being more compressed — to weigh heavier, and therefore sink to the bottom. But, on the contrary, they found sometimes cold and sometimes warm water in all different depths, according to the places from which the currents came. They found even parts of the water which, though in close prox- imity to each other, differed widely in their temperature, and were con- sequently inhabited by entirely different kinds of animals. The results of this expedition, although undertaken under very un- favorable conditions, seemed so remarkable that the English Govern- ment resolved to continue these investigations, and during the two following years (18G9 and 1870) placed another man-of-war at the dis- posal of the scientists. This was the Porcupine, much better adapted to the purpose than the Lightning. The naturalists also had the good fortune to meet with much more favorable weather than during the preceding year. They eagerly pursued their investigations of the mys- terious world of the deep, and did not only see all their former observa- tions corroborated, but also added many new ones. During the former expedition they had only penetrated to a depth of about 1,000 meters, but this time they reached a depth of 2,000, 3,000, and 4,000 meters, and yet did not find the uninhabitable desert which they had expected to find. At the depth of nearly a mile they found many kinds of inver- tebrates. If one takes into consideration the circumstances that these soundings of the deep have to be made in entire darkness, it must be confessed that, if l>3 r blindly groping about in the deep animals are constantly brought up, life in these depths can by no means be scarce, but seems on the contrary to be exceedingly abundant. VI. — The challenger scientific voyage round the world. It may well be imagined with what eager attention all the naturalists of Europe followed these first observations on an entirely new field. Even the public, which is constantly taking greater interest in the progress of science, was surprised at these unexpected discoveries. From all sides the desire was expressed not to stop at these first at- tempts, but to continue the investigation of the world under the sea. So far, however, soundings had only been made in the neighborhood of the European coasts. Important as the result had been, it must be confessed that all these endeavors were but trifling compared to the illimitable extent of the field. An expedition carefully prepared for BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 2 Go exhaustive observations of the depths of the ocean all over the globe would undoubtedly prove of immense interest to science. And what nation was better fitted to take the matter in hand than England, which proudly "rules the waves," and therefore, more than any other nation, would derive benefit from a thorough knowledge of the ocean ? The English statesmen were fully aware of the vast importance of this subject, and with the consent of Parliament they opened the door of the treasury wide. A fine frigate of the Eoyal Navy, called the Challenger, was selected for this expedition ; the guns were taken out, and she was fitted out anew, with the special view of taking observa- tions. The vessel was manned bj r picked officers and men, and a num- ber of prominent naturalists became members of the expedition, at the head of which was Mr. Wyville Thomson, who had had charge of the first observations mentioned above. Toward the end of the year 1872 the Challenger departed on her voyage around the world, cruising in all directions in the Atlantic and Pacific. The expedition occupied three years, and on its return the Challenger had sailed more than 20,000 miles. The observations had been directed to different subjects : the temperature of the water from the surface to the bottom ; the depth of the sea in various places ; the nature of the bottom and the animals inhabiting it ; whether the water was stationary or whether there were currents, the direction and swiftness of these currents, &c. With the excellent instruments plum- mets were hauled up from great depths, among them one of 8,363 meters. This was the greatest depth which was sounded, which of course does not imply that there are no greater depths in the sea, for it can hardly be expected that by chance the plummet would sink into the greatest depth of the sea. And what do we learn, regarding this very interesting subject, from the expedition of the Challenger. The naturalists made everywhere the same observations which they had made in the first waters exam- ined by them. Nowhere did they find a lack of living beings, and at the bottom of the sea they found all kinds of invertebrates. They also hauled up some fish which were evidently intended to live at the bot- tom, and which could not live anywhere else. When the fish were brought up their air bladders protruded from their mouths, and their eyes protruded from their sockets; nothing but the great pressure ex- isting in these depths is able to keep these organs in their places. From the depth crustaceans were brought up as well formed as those of the surface waters, but they were either entirely blind or had no eyes at all. " No wonder," people will say, " for these organs are en- tirely useless in the dense darkness prevailing in these depths/' Granted ; but what do those animals which have eyes, and which also live in the depths, do with those organs ? Are we certaiu that there is in these depths an entire absence of light ? A remarkable statement made by the naturalists of the Challenger seems to make this matter 264 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. somewhat doubtful. Who does uot know the glow-worm, which shines so brightly in the darkness % Such light-giving animals are also found in the water, some of them even in such vast quantities as to make the entire surface of the sea to shine. Polyps have been brought up from the deep, small animals which grow fast to the bottom, and are there found in enormous numbers, outwardly resembling a vegetable product. To illustrate this, imagine every grain in an ear of corn to be a living animal, and imagine even the stalk full of them. These polyps also give out light when they are touched. Behold here the living corn fields of the deep ! If a fish swims over them Lis track is marked by a streak of light. Might it not be possible that, under certain conditions, these submarine living corn fields could throw out light and thus banish darkness from these depths? Another question has also attracted the attention of the naturalists, " On what do the animals of the deep live?" We have spoken above of the large number of carnivorous animals in the sea, but all these animals cannot possibly live in this same manner; some kinds, which become a prey to others, must necessarily find their food in the vegetable kingdom. This kingdom is represented in the sea, but only near the surface; it does not, like the animal kingdom, extend into the depths. What food, therefore, is found in the depths on which those primitive animals, which serve as food for other higher animals, could feed ? To this the naturalists reply that the water of the sea contains nutritive matter, originating from the rivers which empty into the sea, from the waters of the surface, from the numberless decaying animals, &c. The water must, therefore, be considered as the food and drink of some animals. The naturalists of the Challenger were the first to confess that they are still far from possessing a complete knowledge of the ocean. Astron- omers assert that the human race, even after a thousand centuries, shall not have exhausted the study of the heavenly bodies. Who would, therefore, maintain that the same cannot apply to the animals of the sea ? How can we ever expect to finish the observations of the illimit- able deep if a single glass of water from any of our ponds, when viewed through the magnifying glass, shows enough living beings to occupy the lifetime of a man. We know, however, enough of the sea and its bottom to conquer the prejudice which only twenty-five years ago was very widespread, viz, that the sea — inhabitable near its surface — presented in its depths nothing but a dark, dead, and eternally silent desert. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 2G5 A BILL 1'HOI'OSI!) TO Till: RIABTLAND I, EG ISE A I I IRE AT THE SKS.«lIO\ OF 1ST6, AIVD ENTITLED "AN ACT TO REGULATE THE CATCHING VM> TO PROVIDE FOR THE PRESERVATION OF FISH IN THE WATERS OF THE STATE AND OF THE POTOMAC RIVER." By MR. MIGHT. Section I. Be it enacted by the general assembly of Maryland, That no person shall catch or take shad or herring- in the waters of the State and in the Potomac Eiver before the fifteenth of March or after the first day of June in each year. Sec. II. And be it enacted, That during the season for fishing for shad and herring, as above provided, no person shall take or catch with seine, fyke-net, gill-net, or net of any kind, or with weir or fixed appa- ratus of anj- kind or description, any fish between the hours of twelve o'clock in. on Saturday and twelve o'clock midnight on Sunday in each week. Sec. III. And be it enacted, That no person shall fish for or take or earck any kind of fish with seine, fyke-net, or gill-net, or net of any kind or description, or with weir or other fixed apparatus of any kind or de- scription, without first having obtained a license therefor, as hereinafter provided. Sec. IV. And be it enacted, That the comptroller of the treasury shall issue, through the clerks of the several circuit courts of the State, or the clerk of the court of common pleas of Baltimore City when the person applying is a resident of Baltimore City, to a person who is a bona fide resident of the county or city where the application is made, a license to commence on the first day of March and to hold good for one year, to fish, and to take and catch fish with seine, gill-net, fyke- net, or net of any other description, or with weir or other fixed appa- ratus, in any of the waters of this State, subject to the exceptions and provisions in this act. Sec. Y. And be it enacted, That every license to fish as aforesaid shall state the name and residence of the person to whom the same is granted ; the description of the seine, net, or other apparatus to be used ; the number of square yards of seine, net, or other apparatus when rigged, and that he is the bona fide owner of the same ; but no such license shall be granted unless the person applying for the same shall make oath before the clerk of the court authorized to issue the same, or before some j ustice of the peace of the same county or city, upon whose certificate that such oath ,has been made the clerk may issue such license that the facts required to be stated in said license are strictly true, and that he will comply with all the laws of this State regulating the time and manner of catching fish. Sec. YI. And be it enacted. That the clerks of the several circuit 266 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. courts of this State, or the clerk of the court of common pleas of Bal- timore City, as the case may be, shall collect before granting such license one cent per square yard for every square yard of haul-seine of one-inch mesh, and one quarter of one cent in addition thereto for every square yard for every quarter of an inch decrease from one inch in .size of mesh, and one-eighth of one cent less for every square yard for every increase of one quarter of an inch over one inch in size of mesh. Sec. VII. And be it enacted, That every person applying for a license to fish with a gill-net shall pay for the same one cent per square yard for every square yard of net whose mesh is less than one and one-half inches, and three-quarters of one cent per square yard of net whose mesh is over one and one-half inches and less than two and one-half inches, and one-half of one cent per square yard for every square yard of net whose mesh is over two and one-half inches. Sec. VIII. And be it enacted, That every person applying for a license for a weir, fyke-net, pound-net, or fixed apparatus, or apparatus of any kind for fishing, other thau a haul-seine or gill-net, shall pay one cent per square yard for every square yard of fence or leader, and shall also pay in addition for every square yard of the bowl or pocket of the said weir, fyke-net, pound-net, or other apparatus, at the rate, and as pre- scribed in this act for haul-seines. Sec. IX. And be it enacted, That for the purposes of this act, the meshes of all seines and nets of every description whatever shall be measured by the length of the side or bar of the mesh. Sec. X. And be it enacted, That no license shall be required for any seine which is hauled and emptied exclusively in such inclosures as are commonly known as "ponds:" Provided, however, that if the owner or owners of such seine shall haul and empty the same in any other man- ner, he or they shall, unless licensed as hereinbefore provided, be deemed guilty of fishing with a seine without license, and liable as hereinafter provided for such offense. Sec. XI. And be it enacted, That the clerks of the several courts as aforesaid shall each account to the comptroller of the treasury, in his next quarterly return, for all funds obtained from licenses granted under this act, and such return shall contain a statement of the number of such licenses issued, to whom issued, and the size and character of the fishing apparatus for which each license was issued, and all funds which come into the State treasury from such licenses shall be placed to the credit of a fund to be called the " State fishery fund," and the same shall be paid out upon the warrant of the comptroller, to be issued upon the requisition of the commission 9f fisheries, subject to the approval of the governor, and to be used in purchasing or leasing sites, erecting and providing implements, equipments, and ponds for fish breeding, and for payment of the salaries of the fish wardens. Sec. Xli. And be it enacted, That no fish-pot or fish basket shall be BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 2G7 licensed except for the Susquehanna River, but the same shall he deemed a nuisance to be abated by any citizen or resident of the State, and it shall be the duty of the fish wardens and the Stale fishery force, to demolish and remove the same wherever found, except those licensed in the Susquehanna River as herein provided for, after the expiration of three months from the passage of this act, and no person shall am or take or catch any fish in a fish-pot or fish-basket in the Susquehanna River without first having obtained a license therefor as herein pro- vided, for which license he shall pay two cents for every foot of wall- fence or ladder attached to or connected with such fish-pot or fish- basket, and no license shall be issued to construct or use, or to take or catch any fish in, any fish-pot or fish-basket whose slats shall be less than — — inches apart, and any person using a fish-pot or fish-basket, or taking fish therefrom, in the Susquehanna River, without first having obtained such license, shall be fined fifty dollars for the first offense and one hundred dollars for each and every subsequent offense ; and it shall be the duty of the fish wardens to inspect frequently the said fish-pots or fish-baskets in the Susquehanna River during the season in which they are operated, and see that they are constructed and operated in accordance with the provisions of the license, and any person or persons found violating the terms of the license shall be deemed guilty of fish- ing without a license. Sec. XIII. And be it enacted, That if any person shall fish for or take or catch any kind of fish with seine, gill-net, or net of any kind or de- scription, or with weir or any kind of fixed apparatus without first hav- ing obtained a license as hereinbefore provided, he shall forfeit his boat or boats and apparatus for catching fish so being used, and shall also be fined fifty dollars. Sec. XIV. And be it enacted, That if any person shall fish for or take or catch any shad or herring before the fifteenth day of March or after the first day of June in any year, such person shall be fined fifty dol- lars, and shall also forfeit his boat or boats and fishing apparatus. Sec. XV. And be it enacted, That no person, whether licensed, as hereinbefore provided, or not, shall be allowed to take from any river or stream any fish which have been introduced into such river or stream by the Commission of Fisheries, and which were unknown in such river or stream before their introduction therein by the said commis- sion, until after three years from the time of the introduction of such fish, and any person offending against the provisions of this section shall be fined five dollars for each fish so taken. Sec. XVI. And be it enacted, That no person shall be allowed to take or catch the fish known as "black bass" in any of the waters of this State or in the Potomac River in any manner whatever except by ang- ling, and any person offending against the provisions of this section shall forfeit his boat and fishing apparatus, and shall also be fined five dollars for each fish so taken. 268 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Sec. XVII. And be it enacted, That no person shall haul, drift, or fish any seine or gill-net within the water bounds or berths of any regu- lar fishing landing in this State and iu the Potomac River, nor opposite to any part of the shore of the owner or occupier of any such landing, within hauling distance from such shore, between the fifteenth day of March and the first day of June in each year without the permission of the owner or occupier of such fishing lauding, and any such person so offending shall be fined not less than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars for the first offence, and for the second offence he shall be fined one hundred dollars, and shall also forfeit his seine, gill-net, boat, and all his fishing apparatus. Sec. XVIII. And be it enacted, That the owner or owners of all dams erected now or hereafter in or across any of the rivers of this State, or streams running into such rivers, or the Potomac Eiver, or streams running into said river, shall make and keep in repair, properly con- structed fish ladders or fishways, to be placed on said dams so as to afford to the fish in said rivers or streams, free course up and down said river or streams, and if any owner or owners of such dams shall fail to comply with this provision within six months from the passage and approval of this act, he or they shall be deemed guilty of a misde- meauor, and upon conviction thereof iu the court of the county where such owner resides, or in the criminal court of Baltimore city, shall be fined not less than three, nor more than five hundred dollars, and such dam shall be deemed a nuisance and liable to be abated as other nui- sances under the laws of this State. Sec. XIX. And be it enacted, That no person shall catch, take or fish for any fish from off or on any fishways or fish ladders in any of the waters of this State, or of the Potomac River, and any person of- fending against this provision, shall be fined one hundred dollars, and shall forfeit all his fishing apparatus. Sec. XX. And be it enacted, That if any person during the season for fishing for shad and herring as hereinbefore provided for, shall take or catch with seine, gill-net, fyke-net, or net of any kind or description, or with weir or fixed apparatus of any kind or description, any fish of any kind between the hours of twelve o'clock in., on Saturday, and twelve o'clock midnight, Sunday in each week, he shall be fined one dollar for every fish so taken. Sec. XXI. And be it enacted, That from and after the passage of this act it shall not be lawful for any person to take, capture or destroy any fish by seine, gill net, or net of any kind or description, or by fish-bas- ket, iish-pot, weir, or any fixed apparatus of any kind or description, except as is herein provided in the case of the Susquehanna River, or to destroy or capture any fish by shooting or striking them on the ice anywhere beyond one mile above tidewater in any of the waters of this State, or of the Potomac River: Provided, That it may be lawful to use without having obtained a license therefor, a dip-net for landing large BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 2G9 fish iii angling, and tor taking to be used as bait the small fish common! y used for this purpose by anglers, and any one violating the provisions of this section, shall, upon conviction, be lined not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars. Sec. XXII. And be it enacted, That upon information given upon oath to any justice of the peace, accessible or convenient to the place where the offence is committed, of any violation of any of the provis- ons of this act, the said justice shall forthwith issue his warrant for the arrest of the offender or offenders, and for the seizure of the seine, net or other apparatus, and of the boat or boats and other fishing outfit, which shall be directed to the sheriff, or any constable of the county where the said justice of the peace resides, or of Baltimore city, if said justice resides in Baltimore city, or to any of the commanders of the State fishery force, and it shall be the duty of the sheriff, or other offi- cers to whom such warrant may be directed, to arrest the person or persons named in the warrant, and also to seize the seine, net or other apparatus, and boat or boats, and to bring the offender or offenders before the justice issuing the said warrant, and upon conviction of the said offeuce, the justice shall impose the fine or fines provided by this act, and shall decree a forfeiture of such seine, net or other apparatus, and boat or boats, and upon the failure of the said offender or offenders to pay the fine or fines imposed, the justice shall commit him or them until such fine is paid. Sec. XXIII. And be it enacted, That if the name of the offender is unknown, he may be arrested as above provided, on a warrant describ- ing him as the person committing the offence, without stating his name in the warrant. Sec. XXIV. And be it enacted, That it shall be the duty of the sheriff or other officers authorized to serve a warrant issued by a justice of the peace, for a violation of any of the provisions of this act to arrest, with or without warrant, any person or persons found violating any of the provisions of this act, and to seize the seine, net or other apparatus, or boat or boats, in cases where forfeiture of the same is provided, found being used in violating any of the said provisions, and to bring such person or persons before some justice of the peace, convenient or acces- sible to the place where such offence was committed, whereupon such justice shall proceed as is herein provided for cases where such person is brought before him under a warrant issued upon oath. Sec. XXV. And be it enacted, That if any person or persons shall, by threat, menace, or otherwise, attempt to deter or prevent any sheriff, constable, fish warden, or any other persons from enforcing or carrying into effect this act, or any part thereof, he or they so offending shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished with a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding three months, or either or both, at the discretion of the court before which such offender or offenders shall be convicted. 270 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. Sec. XXVI. And be it enacted. That all seines, nets, or other appa- ratus, or boat or boats, condemned to be forfeited under the provisions of this act, shall be delivered by the sheriff, or other officer making the seizure, to some constable of the county, to be selected by the justice before whom the matter was tried, and shall be by him sold at public sale on ten days' notice, given by written notice to be set up at three of the most public places in the neighborhood of the seizure, and the pro- ceeds of sale after deducting the expeuses thereof shall be paid to the school fund of the county where the offence was committed. Sec. XXVII. And be it enacted, That all fines collected for a violation of any of the provisions of this act shall be paid, one-half to the in- former and the remainder to the school fund of the county where the offence was committed. Sec. XXVIII. And be it enacted, That every person convicted under the provisions of this act shall have the right of appeal to the circuit court of the county where the offence was committed, or to the criminal court of Baltimore City, if the offence was committed within the limits of Bal- timore City, but executions of the judgment of the justice of peace shall not be stayed unless the party appealing shall give bond to the State of Maryland for double the amount of fine imposed and value of the property decreed to be forfeited, with security approved by the jus- tice rendering the judgment, with condition to prosecute his appeal with effect, or to pay the fine imposed, with all costs, and also to deliver up to the sheriff or other officer making the seizure the property decreed to be forfeited. Sec. XXIX. And be it enacted, That if any person applying for a license as hereinbefore provided shall swear falsely to any of the facts required to be sworn to by him, he shall be deemed guilty of perjury, and liable to be proceeded against by indictment and otherwise, as in other cases of perjury, and shall also forfeit his seine, bet, or other apparatus, and be fined fifty dollars, the same to be enforced as other fines and forfeitures under the provisions of this act. Sec. XXX. And be it enacted, That the State of Maryland hereby de- clares her assent and approbation to the passage by the State of Vir- ginia of a law containing the general provisions of this act, to regulate the taking and for the preservation of fish in the Potomac Biver; and in the event of the passage of such a law by the said State, and the as- sent and approbation of the said State duly declared being given to the passage of the act, then nothing herein contained shall be construed to prevent a resident of Virginia holding a license issued under such law from fishing in the waters of the Potomac Biver, subject to the other provisions of this act. Sec. XXXI. And be it enacted, That in case the State of Virginia shall enact a law similar in its general provisions to this act, and shall give her assent and approbation to this act with reference to fishing in the Potomac Biver, then citizens of either State when arrested for a viola- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 271 tion of any of the provisions of this act, or of such act to be passed by The State of Virginia relating to the said river, by any officer of either State authorized to arrest therefor, shall be delivered up for trial to such officer of the State of which the offender is a citizen, as may be authorized to arrest under the law of such State, unless arrested for hindrance or disturbance of the fisheries on the shores of the other State, in violation of any of the provisions of this act, in which case he shall be tried in such other State; and persons who are not bona fide resi- dents of either State, who may be arrested for a violation of any of the provisions of this act relating to the Potomac Eiver, shall be tried in the State of the officer making the arrest, and in all questions of citi- zenship the burden of proof shall be on the offender. Sec. XXXII. And be it enacted, That the commissioners of fisheries, and such other persons to whom the said commissioners may give authority in writing, shall be allowed at all times, and in any manner, to take any fish in any of the waters of the State, or in the Potomac River, for purposes of propagation and for scientific purposes. Sec. XXXIII. And be it enacted, That nothing herein contained shall prevent any person from taking fish on his own shores for family use during the seasons, and between the periods allowed by this act, and subject to the provisions relating to such fish as have been intro- duced into the waters of this State by the commissioners of fisheries. Sec. XXXIV. And be it enacted, That the commissioner of fisheries, be, and the same are hereby declared to be, members ex officio of the board of commissioners of the State fishery force, and it shall be the duty of the said board thus constituted, and especially of the several commanders of the vessels used in the said force, to enforce all laws of this State relating and regulating the catching of fish in the navigable waters of this State, and of the Potomac Eiver, as well as those relat- ing to the catching of oysters. Sec. XXXV. And be it enacted, That the governor shall, upon the recommendation of the commission of fisheries, appoint not more than twelve persons to serve as fish wardens in certain limits and localities to be assigned each by the commission of fisheries, and the said war- dens shall be charged with the enforcement of the laws relating to aud regulating the catching of fish in the waters of the State and of the Poto- mac River, and more particularly in those waters beyond the reach of vessels of the State fishery force, and they shall frequently visit the fishing shores and grounds, especially during the fishing season, and such persons so appointed shall receive, in addition to such sum as he may become entitled to as informer, as a salary, a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars per annum, to be paid out of the fund herein pro- vided for, to be known as the State fishery fund ; and such wardens shall be removable at any time by the governor upon the recommendation of the commission of fisheries, and in the event of such removal they 272 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. shall be paid at the rate of not more than one hundred dollars, and only for the time of their actual service. Sec. XXXVI. And be it enacted, That all acts and parts of acts, whether of the public general or public local laws, inconsistent with the provisions of this enactment, be and the same are hereby repealed. Sec. XXXVII. And be it enacted, That no non-resident shall take any fish in any of the waters of this State, except by angling or with hand- line, and nothing in this act shall be so construed as to exempt any one from the operation of the several local laws of this State, where and to the extent that such local laws superadd to the requirements of this aot. Sec. XXXVIII. And be it enacted, That this act shall take effect from the time of its passage. EELS (ANGIIILLA ROSTRATA) IN NEW BEDFORD WATER PIPE*- MACKEREL ABUINDA1VT IN AITIHERST RIVER. By WILLAKD NYE, Jr. [Letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] I send by express several eels that came out of the water-supply pipes of this place. Xow, it struck me that they might be the descendants of the salt-water eels that ran up the Amherst River and got caught there when the water-works dam was made, over ten years ago, and that they had taken what they thought the shortest way back to salt water. They were first noticed in the pipes soon after the nights began to be chilly, and the most trouble from them was in the lower part of thee near the salt water, where they took over thirty out of one pipe. The one in the jar that got stuck in a pipe shows how anxious they were ro get along. This year mackerel have struck into our rivers in great quantities, and they ran higher than I have ever seen them here before. Tin were three sizes, viz, about seven, ten, and a few fourteen inches long, and they must have been driven in here by some kind of fish, as a large per cent, of them showed marks of teeth on their sides, and they did not look like blue-fish bites. 1 thought it might be of interest, as there has never since I can remember been one-tenth as many mackerel in our rivers in any season, and when they were here they were of the small size. New Bedford, Mass., October 27, 1882. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 273 NOTES the schooner Joseph Story arrived at Gloucester with 290 barrels of mackerel from the pounds near Pubnico, N. S.,* while on the same day the schooner Charles Tappan came in with a fare of 300 bar- rels, reported to have been taken on George's Bank. The Port Mnlgrave correspondent of the Cape Ann Advertiser, writ ing under date of June 9, states that mackerel had made their appear- ance on tin; eastern coast of Nova Scotia, "Captain Rood, of the steamer M. A. Starr, reporting* that he passed through large schools between Halifax and Canso. Captain Harding, of schooner Keetsca, of Lockeport [N. S.], made the same report. What had been caught in nets were of large size." From the foregoing it may be seen that early in June mackerel in greater or less abundance were met with all along the coast, from Block Island on the south to Cape Canso on the north, a distance, in a straight line, of about 500 miles. Their abundance off' the New England coast is apparent from the unusually large captures made at this period, to which reference has already been made, and when we consider the enor- mous area which they covered it is difficult to form any accurate esti- mate of the quantity of these fish which swarmed in our waters, and from which our fishermen were gathering a bountiful harvest. Before proceeding further in the discussion of the movemepts of the mackerel, I shall pause to consider some facts in connection with their spawning habits. It has generally been supposed by close observers that mackerel spawn on the New England coast soon after the 1st of June; in the summer of 1882, however, this operation took place later than had ever before been recorded. On June 23 1 opened thirteen mack- erel, caught the preceding evening at Rockport, Mass. Their average length was 12 inches. In nine of them (males) the milt was nearly ripe. Jne was a spent male, and the remaining three had been eviscerated, so that no determination as to sex or condition was possible. Accord- ing to some of the most experienced Gloucester fishermen, the mack- erel on the off-shore grounds had not finished spawning until a month or more later than the above date. Captain Thomas says that the height of the spawning season this year (1882) occurred from about the middle of July to August 1. The majority of the fish taken during that interval appeared to be partially spent, the ovaries and spermaries being somewhat shrunken. They contained, however, more or less eggs and milt in a ripe condition, which ran from the fish when they were handled. A portion of the mackerel had finished spawning and were fatter than the half-spent fish taken from the same school. As a rule, in previous years, it had been noticed that the mackerel sank during the season of reproduction, rarely appearing in schools at the surface, and for a space * On the following day the schooner J. J. Clark arrived with a full fare from the same locality, and other vessels came in later which had obtained loads of mackerel from the Nova Scotia pounds. 278 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. of two or three weeks comparatively few fish could be taken. Accord- ing to Captain Thomas, the mackerel " showed up" during the spawning season of 1882 better than the records indicate for any previous year, and great numbers were caught in the deep water about 15 to 40 miles to the east of Cashe's Ledge. The late occurrence of the spawning season this year was perhaps due to a probable lower temperature of the water than is common, caused by the masses of ice to the eastward, reference to which has already been made. My brother, Capt. D. E. Collins, says that as late as May 15 the ice on the southern coast of Nova Scotia ex- tended as far west as Whitehead, and even at a later date vessels were blockaded in the harbor of Cape Canso, nor was passage through the straits of Canso possible. Very few scientific observations, so far as I know, have as yet been made concerning the degree of water temper- ature at which mackerel prefer to spawn, and for this reason any intel- ligent theoretical discussion of the subject is impossible. Returning, then, from this digression to a further consideration of the movements of the mackerel, we find that about the middle of June r as has already been stated, they were massed in four large divisions, with here and there additional straggling schools. The two largest and most important bodies were those of which the first was found be- tween Cashe's and George's Banks, and the other oft' the coast of Maine and about the mouth of the Bay of Fundy. A third body of mackerel which, pursuing its way along the southern coast of Nova Scotia, sub- sequently entered the Gulf of Saint Lawrence was of much less impor- tance than the two last mentioned. The fourth division, the capture of which was comparatively unremnnerative by reason of the small size of the fish, was found off Noman's Land and near the South Shoal off Nantucket.* One of the most important features to be noted in connection with the mackerel that swarmed in such abundance in the Gulf of Maine, during the summer, is that they remained in unusually deep water and much farther from the coast than these fish generally occur. From early in June until the last of July, mackerel were very abun- dant between Cashe's and George's, playing in the deep water immediately east of the former bank. According to Captain Martin, a largo portion of the mackerel which were brought into Gloucester between the above dates was taken in that locality. On July 13 he records the arrival of the schooner Reporter (a haddock-catcher), whose captain testified to having sailed through schooling-mackerel for a distance of 50 miles • From the fad that the schools of mackerel found oifNomau's Land and Nantucket Shoals in June, were composed of such small individuals, none of the vessels sought them after about the SJOth of June. For This reason no reliable data can bo obtained concerning the movements of these fish, though there is every reason to suppose that they entered the Gulf of Maim — between (.'ape Cod and the Bay of Fundy — ill July, since schools -of small mackerel wore occasionally captured in those waters during the latter part of the summer and throughout the fall. For the above reasons, no further allusion to the nun ements of this body of fish will be made. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 279 between Brown's and Cashe's Banks. The western edge of this body of lish extended to within 10 miles of the latter bank. Captain Thomas says: " Nearly all mackerel fishermen know that in June and July the ehief part of the lish was caught in the deep water between Cashe's and George's Banks in depths ranging from about 100 to 200 fathoms " Captain John W. McFarlane, of the schooner William F. Gaffhey, which arrived in Gloucester on June 23, with a full fare, told me that he caught the larger portion of his fish in the deep water 10 miles southeast from Cashe's and that when the fish failed to "show" at the surface there, he "stood in" toward Cape Ann. When about 30 or 10 miles distant from the land, in the deep water lying in an east- southeast direction from the Cape, he fell in with numerous schools, capturing enough in one day to complete his load. Mr. Silas Calder, one of the crew of the schooner W. H. Wellington, of. Gloucester, states that from July 1 to July 20 there was a large fleet of mackerel schooners fishing from 90 to 100 miles southeast by south from Monhegan Island. He thinks that a very large percentage of the mackerel caught by the New England fleet, during the period above mentioned, was taken in that locality, namely, the deep water between Cashe's and George's Banks, where also the Wellington, which left Gloucester on her first trip June 28, returning in twelve days, caught her fare of 100 barrels. The whole fleet did well, many vessels securing large fares in a few days.* Captain Ilurlburt, formerly of the United States Fish Commission, and others who have been engaged during this season in the mackerel fishery, concur in this statement. Captain Hurlburt is one of the crew of the schooner Wildfire, which arrived from a mackerel trip on August 7, after an absence of twelve days, with 535 barrels of fish. He says that 100 of the above were taken in the deep water 35 miles east- southeast from the shoal water of Cashe's. These were all fine fish. *The following chronological record of arrivals of mackerel schooners with full fares caught, for the most part, hetween Cashe's and George's, from July 20 to July 29, inclusive, is obtained from Obtain Martin's journal: July 20. — Seven schooners arrived, two of which averaged 360 barrels each, after an absence of only six days, while the total aggregate brought in by the whole was 2,390 barrels. July 21. — Two schooners, with an aggregate catch of 370 barrels. July 22. — Two schooners, with an aggregate catch of 490 barrels. July 24. — Nine schooners, with an aggregate catch of 2,404 barrels July 25. — Seven schooners, with an aggregate catch of 2,225 barrels. July 2(J. — Eleven schooners, with an aggregate catch of 3,150 barrels. July 27. — Eight schooners, with an aggregate catch of 2,835 barrels. July 28. — Fifteen schooners, with an aggregate catch of 5,398 barrels. July 29. — Fifteen schooners, with an aggregate catch of 4,965 barrels. This gives a grand total of 24,227 barrels of mackerel taken by seventy-six schooners . In corroboration of the above, the Cape Ann Bulletin of August 2, 1882, contained the following: "Last Thursday there w'as an immense arrival of mackerel, one vessel bringing 500 barrels, another 400 barrels, another 375, and another 350. The best mackerel are of extra good quality, most of them being taken between George's and Cashe's." 280 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. As soon as the schools disappeared and could no longer be found in this region, most of the fleet, numbering about eighty sail, went to other grounds. The Wildfire ran to the eastward, and the remainder of her fare, 135 barrels, was taken 25 miles west by south from Bryer Island, N. S. Capt. George M. McClain, master of this schooner, says that before the middle of August he caught no fish in shoal water. It is not possible to say with any degree of certainty why the mackerel, as a rule, exhibited such a disposition to remain off-shore and in deep water. Their presence and long continuance to the eastward of Cashe's may, however, be due to the abundance of food which could be obtained there, though the same reason cannot so positively be assigned for their presence elsewhere. The fishermen during the month of July reported that the mackerel caught in the vicinity of Cashe's were "full of feed," while those taken along the Maine coast and in the Bay of Fundy hail little or no food in their stomachs. It is very probable that the unusual disinclination of the main body of the mackerel to approach close to the coast may be attributed to a remarkable scarcity, along the shore, of the forms of life upon which they feed. The fact that the fish which Avere caught nearest the coast were rarely found gorged with "seed" — indeed, the opposite being generally the case — would indicate that there was little to attract them in-shore, and consequently they remained a long distance from the land, where the chances for obtaining food were better. But even on the off-shore grounds a decrease in the abundance of mackerel "feed" was noticeable about the 1st of August, and this may have influenced the subsequent movements of the fish found thereabout. At any rate the mackerel, which were so abundant to the eastward of Cashe's during June and July, apparently left that locality early in August, since by that time they were no longer accessible in large numbers to the fishermen, and during the remainder of the season only a few scattering schools were found in those waters. It is possible that during the period of abundance on Cashe's the schools were in reality on their way to the east coast of Maine, the mouth of the Bay of Fundy, or to Seal Island Ground, passing along slowly in an eastward or north- easterly course. That the fish did move in one of these directions, about the last of July or the 1st of August, there can be but little doubt. Further reference will be made to this matter in a subsequent paragraph. Passing, now, to the consideration of the schools of mackerel which were found near the coast of Maine, I will say that with rare exceptions they kept off in deep water at distances from the land varying from 15 to 40 or 50 miles; and, according to the statements of the fishermen, their method of schooling differed in some respects from that followed by the mackerel on Cashes. Captain Martin also records, under date of July 24, the following facts relative to this matter : "The mackerel, which are in large bodies, when they go across Cashe's BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH. COMMISSION. 281 appear to be more scattered, and break up into small pods when they reach the Bay of Fundy."* Perhaps the greatest quantities of mackerel taken on the coast of Maine during June and July were caught in the vicinity of Mount Desert Rock, at distances therefrom of 15 to 30 miles, and usually in a southeast direction. Mr. Calder told me that the Wellington, while on her second trip, took the greater portion of her fare in the deep watert 45 miles south from Mount Desert. He also states that at the end of July and the beginning- of August, a fleet of 50 to 85 sail was fishing in those waters. At the same time, good catches were made from 15 to 25 miles from Matinicus and Monhegan Islands."| Indeed, mackerel had never been more plentiful on the American coast from the commencement of the spring fishing to the middle of August, nor had vessels ever made larger captures, than during this period.§ In August, however, a decided change took place in this fishery, the re- ceipts of mackerel at the principal fishing ports falling off considerably. * By the Bay of Fundy, Captain Martin may be understood to mean the waters ex- tending from Monhegan Island to Grand Manan. tThe term deep water, as used here, may be taken to mean a depth varying from 60 to 200 fathoms, but generally more than 80 fathoms. " tThe following record of arrivals with full fares taken in this region is gathered from the journal of Captain Martin : June 22. — Arrival of four mackerel schooners, one of which fished off Mount Desert. June 26. — Arrival of ten mackerel schooners. Most vessels report catching their fish off the coast of Maine. Jane 27. — Arrival of four mackerel schooners from 20 miles southeast of Matinicus. June 29. — Arrival of four mackerel schooners, one of which caught its fish 30 miles east of Mount Desert Eock. July 16. — Schooner S. A. Campbell arrived with 360 barrels, reported to have been caught 10 miles from Grand Manan Island. August 2. — Five fares of mackerel arrived on previous day, one of which was caught 40 miles southeast from Mount Desert Rock, one 35 miles southeast from Matinicus, and a third 35 miles to the southward of Monhegan Island. The other two fares were caught on Cashe's. August 8. — Sis arrivals of mackerel fares, some of which were caught 30 miles north- west from Yarmouth, N. S., and the others 25 miles southeast from Mount Desert Rock. It is worthy of notice that quite all of the localities mentioned here by Captain Martin are those where there is deep water, or at least where the depth is more than 50 fathoms. Indeed, the area is very small off the coast of Maine where a depth of less than 50 fathoms can be obtained outside of 15 miles from the land. § The following extracts from the Cape Ann Advertiser of July 7, 1882, bear testi- mony to this statement : " Schooner Carl Schurz, belonging to Messrs. Rowe & Jordan of this city, landed 850 barrels of mackerel iu two trips between 6th and 30th ultimo, June." "Schooner Augusta E. Herrick, of Swan's Island, has landed 850 barrels iu fourteen days." "Schooner Henry N. Woods, Captain McEachran, seined 500 barrels of mackerel off Seal Island inside of two weeks." "Schooner Edward E. Webster, Captain Solomon Jacobs, sailed from Boston on Monday and was back there Thursday with 250 barrels of mackerel, seined off Mount Desert Rock, stocking $1,300." 282 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. This decrease was due in a great measure to the prevalence of dense togs which hung over the waters frequented by the mackerel fishermen,, and often rendered fishing impracticable. It is also possible that the comparative scarcity of the fish which occurred at this time may have been caused by a remarkable discoloration of the sea- water, which appeared about the 1st of August along the coast of Maine and in the Bay of Fundy. Mackerel fishermen, returning from the Bay of Fundy and the coast of Maine, August 10, reported that for ten or twelve days previous the water off Monhegan and Mount Desert had presented a most singular appearance, its color resembling that of diluted milk. This whitish streak was 30 or 40 miles wide, and extended some 05 or 70 miles in a northeasterly direction from Monhegan Island, its inner edge varying from 5 to 25 miles distant from the land. The line of de- markation between this colored water and the blue sea was very conspic- uous and as regular as a wall. During this period the white water was semi-transparent, so that the fish, to which was imparted a reddish tinge, could be seen beneath the surface at a great distance. Some men stated that mackerel passing from blue to white water appeared to be peculiarly affected by the change, apparently becoming wild and rush- ing madly to and fro. Others, however, did not notice any of these peculiarities in the movements of the fish, merely stating that the mack- erel rarely schooled at the surface. The semi-transparency of the water, however, enabled the fishermen to see the schools so far beneath the surface that, in consequence, they could be inclosed in the purse-seines as well as if they were inclined to swim closer to the top of the water. For a couple of weeks after the appearance of this phenomenon many schools of mackerel were captured in the " white water," though the best fishing was beyond its limits about the western part of the Xova Scotia coast, off Yarmouth, and on the Seal Island Ground. At the same time, however, the market boats, and occasionally the salt fisher- men, made some large hauls in the waters around and inside of Monhe- gan, which were, at the time of the phenomenon, within the area of discoloration. It is difficult to define precisely the influences which this " white water" may have exerted on the movements of the mackerel, but it certainly is the general opinion of the fishermen that one effect produced was a sudden and almost total disappearance of the main body of the fish from the coast. Though it is probable that the discolor- ation was due to an unusual accumulation of some form of animalcnla or crastacea in the water, it is nevertheless true that little or no food suitable for the mackerel occurred within its limits. All of the mack- erel fishermen with whom I have conversed on this subject agree in saying that without exception the fish taken in the •■ white water" had little or no food in their stomachs. It is not probable that there was any chemical change in the sea, yet many of the most intelligent and observ- ing fishermen are of the opinion that the schools of mackerel were pecu liarly affected by the " white water," or at least acted queerly within its limits. Capt. George H. Martin, of Gloucester, assured me that the BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 283 fish appeared less shy and could be captured far easier than when in blue water, not attempting to escape from the seine by " diving," as is so frequently the case under ordinary circumstances. This is all the more remarkable since the wonderful clearness of the water, previously alluded to, made it possible even for the fishermen to see the bottom of their seine which was sunk a depth of from 18 to 25 fathoms. The occurrence of heavy fogs, as has already been stated, during the month of August and the beginning of September, and the fact that the main body of mackerel was at that time found on the Seal Island Ground* and Brown's Bank, where strong currents and heavy tide-rips occur, rendered it extremely difficult for the fishermen to capture the fish which were found in that region. The result, therefore, of these com- bined adverse influences was a great decrease in the catch of fish by the mackerel fleet. It seems altogether probable that the mackerel caught on the Seal Island Ground and about Brown's Bank were the same fish which occurred earlier in the season in such abundance between Cashe's and George's Banks, and which, as has previously been stated, probably moved to the eastward from the above-mentioned locality. What direc- tion this body of mackerel took after leaving Brown's Bank cannot be absolutely determined, but it is the opinion of most of the experienced fishermen that the fish, continuing their outward course from the shore, swept off by the southern edge of George's instead of passing inside, as is their usual habit when making their regular fall migration. This irregular movement was anticipated as early as July, for on the 8th of that month Captain Martin wrote : "If no other school of mackerel comes along the catch will be light during the latter part of the season. I do not think the mackerel on the Seal Island Ground will go into the Bay of Fundy. " The fishermen at that date, too, reported an abundance of mackerel on George's, and Captain Martin, on June 28. 1882, noted the arrival, in Gloucester, of two fares of mackerel from that bank. Although a few fares may have then been taken on George's, it seems probable that in most cases, there was a slight error in the reports of the skippers; for, to my knowledge, several of the Gloucester vessels which visited George's on the strength of these statements failed to find any mackerel in that locality. These failures may have been due to some extent to the prevalence of dense fogs which covered the bank much of the summer, and rendered it next to impossible for the skippers to keep their position on this ground, where the tides sweep with great velocity. Therefore it seems probable that most of the fares which were reported on several occasions to have been caught on George's Bank were in reality taken in the near vicinity, north of the bank, or farther east, on Brown's Bank. Little more can be said relative to the movements of the mackerel on the [New England coast during the season of ] 882, except to speak of the scarcity of fish throughout the remainder of the season, which was * Catches of mackerel were also made on this ground as early in the season as the latter part of June. 284 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. in remarkable contrast to their abundance in the early part of the year. It is true that a few of the vessels — the "lucky ones" — suc- ceeded in making many good catches during the late summer and fall, but the majority of the fleet averaged small fares. I am, indeed, as- sured that some vessels took less than 100 barrels each from the first of August until November. The mackerel which still remained near the coast, appearing in somewhat scattered schools — and for the most part of small size — began their fall migration at about the usual time, that is, late in September or early in October. About this date the vessels, many of which had been fishing on the off-shore grounds, having lost trace of the fish there, collected near the coast and pursued the mack- erel as they moved in a westerly course from the shores of Maine to- wards Massachusetts Bay and contiguous waters. The fall catch ot mackerel, which, even with favorable weather, would probably not have been very large, was seriously affected by the prevalence of strong easterly winds, and no doubt the departure of the fish from the coast was somewhat hastened by the same cause. An interesting and somewhat remarkable feature of the mackerel fish- ery during the fall should be mentioned. When the mackerel reached the waters about Cape Ann and Massachusetts Bay, comparatively few catches were made in the daytime ; the phosphorescence exhibited at night, however, aided the work of the seiners. The fish rarely schooled by daylight, and even when they did they were, according to the state- ments of several parties, so shy as to render their capture very difficult and often impossible. Most of the fish taken were caught at night, and, as I was assured by some of the fishermen, so small was the probability of seining mackerel in the daytime that on many of the vessels no one was kept on the lookout for schools. Dark, moonless nights are, under such circumstances, best for the capture of mackerel, since at such times the movements of the fish may be known and traced by the phos- phorescence thrown out from the schools. Notwithstanding, however, that every effort was made both night and day, the vessels, as a rule, did so poorly that the majority of the mackerel fleet had "hauled up" before the 1st day of November. A lew very fair catches were, how- ever, made in Barnstable Bay and about Cape Cod on subsequent dates. Before closing these remarks it may be well to refer again to the schools of mackerel which, detained beyond their usual period of migra- tion along the Nova Scotia shore, eventually found their way into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Whether any of the fish, which under other conditions might have gone to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, were hin- dered from doing so by the accumulation of ice about the eastern part of Nova Scotia, can only be conjectured. According to the reports of the Boston Fish Bureau, mackerel have never within the memory of man been so scarce in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as during this season. The catch <>!' the boat-fishermen at Prince Edward Island has been unusually small, while not a single fare, so far as can be learned, was taken by either American or Canadian vessels, if we except a small trip # BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 285 caught in gill-nets by an American schooner on the Labrador coast. Indeed, it is a fact thai one Provincial vessel, at least, the Festina Lente, Capt. Andrew Hammond, of Lockport, Nova Scotia, was engaged during the past season in mackerel seining on the New England coast. It seems only proper to allude to this tact in this connection because it goes to prove that the claims made by the Canadians concerning the superiority of the mackerel fisheries in their waters is wholly without foundation. There is every prospect that in future years a fleet of Can- adian vessels will be engaged in mackerel seining on our coast, instead of our fishermen being compelled to resort to Provincial waters, as was the case when hand lining was the principal means of capture. In this connection, and as a fair demonstration of the importance and pros- perity which the mackerel fishery has reached at the present day on our coast, should be mentioned the remarkable and unparalleled stocks which have been realized by some of the vessels from the sale of their fish. The following extracts from the Cape Ann Advertiser give a statement of the most important stocks made by the vessels engaged in the mackerel fishery during the season when this species can be taken, namely, from April 1 to about the middle of November: "Two of the largest mackerel stocks ever landed at this port or in New England have been made by the schooners Nellie N. Eowe, Capt. Eben Lewis, and the Edward E. Webster, Capt. Solomon Jacobs, the past season, comprising eight months of time actually employed. The net stock of the Eowe was $35,537, and of the Webster $34,229. The average share of the Webster's crew was $959.75, and the steward, Mr. Warren Fowles, with his extra pay of $160, made for his season's work, $1,129.75."— (Cape Ann Advertiser, November 17, 1882.) "The following good stocks are reported in the mackerel fishery by vessels hailing from this port : Schooner J. H. French, Capt. John Chis- holm, net stock about $20,000, crew shared $615; schooner Leona, Capt. Willard Pool, net stock $19,715.72, crew shared $582; schooner Carl Schurz, Capt. Jed. Warren, net stock since June 6, $15,608, crew shared $468— stock for the year, $23,222, crew sharing $733.86; schooner John D. Long, Capt. Charles Hardy, net stock $18,500, crew shared $571; schooner Helen M. Crosby, Capt. Joseph Swim, net stock $18,020, crew shared $596; schooner Ivanhoe,Capt. James Crowley, net stock $16,941, crew shared $525; schooner Golden Hind, Capt. Solomon Eeed, net stock $16,323, crew shared $594; schooner John S. McQuin, Capt. Henry G. Coas, net stock $16,035.57, crew shared $517."— (Cape Ann Advertiser, November 24, 1882.) It should be borne in mind that the above figures, large as they may appear, represent only the net stock made by the several vessels, and that to get a more correct idea of the value of the fish taken we must add to the stock of each schooner from two to three thousand dollars. This will give us, approximately, the amount for which the fish were sold. 286 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. CATCH OF FISH IN IVE WFOlTIVHIiAIVJtt AIVH LABRADOR IIV 1SS1. By JOS. S. HAYWARD. [From letter to Prof. S. F. Baird.] I enclose a memorandum showing the exports of the product of this colony for the year ending July 31, 1882. It gives the catch of fish for the year 1881, as at the date the memorandum was made up all the fish caught in that year was exported. The catch for the present year is not so large, but the prices have considerably increased. STATEMENT OP EXPORTS PROM NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR POR THE YEAR ENDING JULY 31, 1882. £ s. a. 1,463,439 quintals dried codfish, at 20s 1, 463, 439 00 1,457 quintals green codfish, at 6s. 6^ . . . . 473 10 200,500 sealskins, at 5s .... 50,125 00 5,548 tuns seal oil, at £31 171, 988 00 116 tuns whale oil, at £27 3, 132 00 4,254 tuns cod oil, at £29.. 123,366 00 147 tuns refined cod-liver oil, at £48 7, 056 00 1 tun other oil, at £25 25 00 3 tuns cod dregs, at £12 36 00 83 tuns cod blubber, at £3 10s 290 10 3,825 tierces pickled salmon, at £6 22, 950 00 313,000 pounds frozen salmon, at M 7,825 00 10,000 pounds preserved salmon, at Id 291 13 4 4,330 barrels frozen herrings, at 5s 1,082 10 63,943 barrels pickled herrings, at 17s. 6d 55, 950 02 6 1,716 barrels pickled trout, at 40s .'*, 432 00 1 barrel pickled mackerel, at 15s 15 10 barrels cod roes, at 15s 7 10 721 quintals dried haddock, at 13s 468 13 22 barrels pickled turbot, at 40s 44 00 557 barrels dried caplin, at 2s 6d 44 12 6 62 packages cod sounds and tongues, at 5s . . . 15 10 1,265,224 pounds preserved lobsters, at M 26, 35S 16 8 9 tons whale pitchings, at £18 162 00 2,379 pounds whalebone, "local, "at 3d 29 14 9 5,948 pounds whalebone, " Arctic," at 10s 2, 974 00 18,729 tons copper ore, at £5 93, 645 00 155 tons regulus ore, at £12 1, 860 00 Unenumerated articles 20, 000 00 2,057,072 18 3 or $8, 228, 2<>1 65 Custom House, St. Johns, Newfoundland, February 17. 1883. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 287 NOTES OIV THE HERRING FISHERY OF MASSACHUSETTS BAY IN THE AUTUMN OF 1882. By CAPT. J. W. COLLINS. The herring fishery prosecuted in Massachusetts Bay and contiguous waters during the fall of 1882 has presented some phases which are of special interest. The peculiarities exhibited are : I. The apparent disinclination of the fish to approach as close to the shore as was formerly their custom. II. The accidental capture of many schools of herring, in the night, by the purse-seiners, at various distances from land. Before entering into a discussion of these topics I shall allude, briefly, to the arrival of spawning sea-herring in several distinct schools on the coast of Maine, during the spring and summer ; and to the marked de- gree of consistency and regularity which these fish exhibit in making their annual visits to certain localities. I designate them as sea her- ring in contradistinction to the smaller fish which frequent the shores during the greater part of the year. The large herring come inshore apparently only for the purpose of reproduction, for I have never known any of them to make their appearance on the coast except when they were in a gravid condition. At other times they are usually found only •on or near the outer fishing-banks from 30 to 150 miles from the coast. In the spring, during April and May, the schools of herring, which are found in the vicinity of Eastport, generally come to deposit their ova. In the latter part of July and beginning of August, spawning herring are abundant about Boisbubert Island, near Millbridge, on the mention that the captain of the yacht "Madeline," which lav in winter quarters at Greenport, kindly lent us the yacht's patent log, which wo found very serviceable. The log was returned through Captain Redmond, with a letter of thanks and acknowledgment of the favor conferred. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 309 The investigation having now continued uninterruptedly for three days, and 50 miles along the edge of the ground having been tried over, with not the slightest indication of the presence of the tilefish, to search for which was the object of the trip, and the appearance of the weather being such that strong winds and a rough sea might be expected for the next two or three days at least,* I concluded that nothing could be gained by staying longer on the ground. One reason for this decision was that our bait, though we had had it on board only five days, had already begun to show signs of deterioration, and it was obvious that, should we have rough weather for three or four days, which was very likely to occur at this season, the menhaden would be entirely unfit for use, and the cruise would have to be given up then even if there should be a return of fine weather. The chances, therefore, were that a longer stay would only add to the expense of the trip without the attainment of any additional results. Other important business, which required my attention, also made it extremely desirable that no time should be wasted. Besides all this the time for which we had chartered the smack had nearly expired, and Captain Eedmond was very desirous of resum- ing his business of lobster carrying, since he feared his trade might be injured by a longer absence. I had hoped to continue the investigation for eight or ten days, at least, and to have prosecuted the research some distance farther south, though the probabilities are that little more could have been accom- plished, so far as catching tilefish is concerned. Nevertheless, it would have been more satisfactory if the weather had permitted us to stay long enough to settle all doubts as to the presence or absence of the Lopholatilus within certain limits. However, this not being practicable for the reasons given above, it was decided to run for the land. Accord- ingly we kept off at 5 o'clock p. m. The wind at that time blew fresh, and continued strong and steady through the night. At 2 o'clock Sun- day morning, September 24, we made Block Island light. After getting nearly abreast of the island we hauled up more, and, passing through Buzzard's Bay and Quick's Hole, reached Wood's Holl about 9 o'clock a. m., just in time to escape a dense fog which, coming in from sea, com- pletely obscured all but the nearest objects. The apparatus which we had on board of the Josie Beeves, and as much of the collection as was considered valuable, was landed during the day, and Captain Bedmond was left free to proceed to New York as soon as the weather permitted him to sail, which he did on the following morning. Before closing this report it is proper that mention should be made of the efficient aid rendered by the captain and crew of the Josie Beeves in the prosecution of this investigation. The cheerfulness with which *The spell of rough easterly weather that hegaii at this time continued uninter- ruptedly for eight days, and there is little probability that the least cbance would have offered to set trawls, especially when we consider that a large fleet of mackerel schooners was kept in harbor during all this time, and many vessels engaged in the cod and halibut fisheries were prevented from sailing by the same cause. 310 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. they engaged iu the most arduous labor, and the zeal they exhibited in collecting and in doing all that pertained to the work we had to per- form, was certainly commendable, and rendered my duty much pleas- anter than it otherwise would have been. I would also improve this opportunity to acknowledge the obligations I am under to Mr. Phillips for suggestions which were valuable and well timed. REPORT UPON THE MANAGEMENT OF GERMAN CARP BY A MIS- SISSIPPI CORRESPONDENT.* By JOHN YOST. [From a letter to Prof. S. F. Baird. ] About the middle of December, 1881, I received at Jackson, Miss., in good order, twenty Carp from the United States Fish Commission. Un- fortunately the pond intended for their reception was stocked with other fish, such as Sun-fish, Bream, and Cat-fish. I undertook to drain it, and having procured a dry-goods box about two and one-half feet square by twenty inches deep, I bored a number of small holes to allow the free circulation of the water running from a spring. I put a rock in it to hold it down, also a few shovels of dirt. Then I put the Carp in the box. They remained there eight days. I fed them on crumbs of corn bread. I could see some of them every day and supposed they were doing well, but when I had drained my pond and it was ready for their reception, I was surprised in taking them out to find ten of them under the rock and dead. That left me but ten live fish, and two of them were sick. When I turned them loose in the pond they swam slowly off into deep water, and have not been seen since. I have two ponds side by side, with but a few feet of earth to separate them. Into the one where the box was was sunk I put the common fish. While taking the Carp from the box one of them accidentally fell in with the Cats and Bream. I had not seen any of the Carp until the first day of the present month, when a boy fishing for the common fish caught the Carp that had accidentally got among them. The bait used was a worm. I measured his length, which was 12 inches from the nose to the parting of the tail. When put in the pond about December 2G they were each of them about 3 inches long. In the case of this one it shows a gain of 9 inches in length in six months. Of course, I put him with his own kind. I have not seen them, however, since they were put in, December 26, 1881. I suppose they are doing well from the condition iu which I found that one. For food I give them cabbage leaves, lettuce, tomatoes, peaches, apples, and corn bread. I discover small fish in their pond. I would like to know at what age they breed. Brandon, Franklin County, Mississippi, July 30, 1882. * Had this gentleman followed instructions to have his pond in entire readiness, and free from all other lish, his success would doubtless have been greater. — Editor. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 311 NOTES OIV TOE HALIBUT FISHERIES OF 1S81-'S2. By CAPT. J. W. COLLINS. The importance of the fishery for fresh halibut, the apparently rapid diminution of the species wherever it has been sought, causing thereby more changes in this industry than are noticeable in the other food- fisheries, seems to make it desirable that a record of the leading events connected with this business (so far at least as relates to the abundance of fish on certain grounds) should be kept. Two events of a remarka- ble character, and which seem worthy of special mention, have occurred during the seasons of 1881-'82. These are (1) the discovery of a new fishing ground, and (2) the occurrence, at a season when it was least to be expected, of halibut in almost unequalled numbers in a well-known and long-frequented region. The following account of the events al- luded to is based on such facts as could be gathered from the halibut fishermen during my stay at Gloucester this summer (1882), and though not at all exhaustive may possibly prove of some interest. As a rule, during most of the season of 1881, and particularly in the fall, halibut were scarce on the more frequented fishing grounds along the edge of the outer banks. Consequently the inducement was great for the skippers to seek new and untried fields, where, perhaps, fish might be found in undisturbed abundance. With this end in view, Capt. George H. Johnson, of the schooner Augusta A. Johnson, in the autumn of 1881, crossed the Grand Bank and fished in the deep water on its eastern slope, where, so far as I know, no systematic research had previously been made.* Anchoring in 110 fathoms — latitude 43° 55' north, longitude 49° 08' west — he found halibut abundant, and made large catches on trawls set to the eastward of his vessel and in somewhat deeper water. In six days' fishing he secured a fare of be- tween 50,000 and 60,000 pounds of halibut, most of which were large "gray" fish.t The same schooner on her next trip — this time com- manded by another man — revisited the new ground, but the winter * I was told by an acquaintance several years ago that a vessel had looked for hali- but along the eastern edge of the Grand Bank as early as 1877, but had failed to find any, the skipper reporting that the bottom declined so suddenly that it was imprac- ticable to attempt to anchor or set trawls. The late researches have shown that the statement was entirely wrong, and give reason to doubt the probability of the vessel having visited the deep water on the east side of the Bank. tit is somewhat remarkable that when halibut are found on grounds not previ- ously fished a large percentage of the catch are generally "gray" fish, and with rare exceptions these are above the average size. Instances are somewhat uncommon where medium sized " white " halibut have predominated on newly tried fields, but such instauces have, however, occasionally occurred. After several years' fishing in one locality the quality of the halibut generally improves, the fish being of smaller size and in finer condition. 312 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. season had then so far advanced that there was a constant succession of furious gales. The prevalence of strong northerly winds caused an unusually rapid flow of the polar current (which often sweeps down by the eastern side of the Grand Bank with such velocity as to render fishing nearly impracticable), and in consequence of this combination of unfavorable circumstances, very little was accomplished. In the spring of 1882 Captain Johnson went to this place again and had re- markable success. His good fortune was soon noised abroad, where- upon many of the other halibut schooners made similar ventures, the result being that the eastern side of the Grand Bank was pretty thor- oughly " tried over" from latitude 43° 15' to 44° 30' north, in depths vary- ing from one to three hundred fathoms. At many poiuts along this stretch halibut were abundant, but a strong polar current caused the fishermen much loss of gear, whilst the prevalence of dense fogs, to- gether with the proximity of numerous icebergs, rendered fishing in that locality so hazardous that the majority of the skippers were glad to resort to other grounds, even where, perhaps, the prospect of finding large numbers of fish was not so good. Several of the vessels lost most of their trawls before they had secured a full fare, and few that fished on the eastern side of the bank returned to port without having met with some damage to their gear.* The icebergs sweeping down from the north, borne along by the swiftly running currents, were a source of great danger to the vessels lying at anchor. Huge mountains of ice would often appear suddenly out of a dense fog so close to the schooners that the startled crews were frequently almost compelled to cut their cables to prevent collision. Captain Johnson told me that on one occasion he counted twenty-eight bergs within sight of his ves- sel, and one of the number lay grounded for nearly a week — all the time he remained at anchor — not more than a mile distant, in water probably not less than 125 fathoms deep. It is scarcely necessary to say that in a rough sea one blow from such a monster would crush a fishing schooner as though it were an egg-shell. The fact, however, of halibut having been found in abundanco off the eastern, or rather, perhaps, the southeastern side of the Grand Bank, is a matter of more interest than would appear at first glance, since it permits us to form a better idea of the winter habitat of certain schools of this species, and also to judge more intelligently concerning the spring and fall migrations, about which, heretofore, only indefinite and uncertain ideas could be formed. For several years previous to the discovery of the deep-water fishing-grounds, it was noticed by the fishermen that, during the winter and early spring — from about the * Where strong currents prevail in dec]) water the buoys -which mark t lie posit Lou of the trawl-lines are dragged beneath tho surface of the water by the great strain on the buoy-line. These buoys, being generally soft wr varieties of the same species are susceptible of concurring in the production of a being. Very often, when closely allied species or varieties of the same species were used, the cross-fertilization would not end in the production of living embryos. The elements soinetiine*s Bull. U. S. P. C, 82 21 April 19, 1883. 322 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. blended properly and fecundation took place; sometimes also the ovule would segment and attain a more or less advanced degree of develop- ment, etc.; but when these same elements were brought into immediate contact they remained unchanged, and ended in absolute sterility. This is precisely what we have observed in theconrseof direct attempts at hybridization which we have made during the past two years — last year and this. At different times and under different conditions we have brought the eggs of the Portuguese oyster and the milt of the common oyster into contact, and vice versa; never under these experimental conditions, the sexual elements not being brought into contact naturally, has there been a trace of evidence of successful fertilization or of development. ATTEMPTS AT ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION. When after two years we had learned for a certainty that the sexes of Ostrea angulata were confined to separate individuals, we immediately conceived that it was possible to artificially fertilize the eggs of this mollusk. We were likewise encouraged by the experiments which Brooks, of the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore, had made upon Ostrea virginica, likewise unisexual, and which had enabled him to follow the development of the embryos to the formation of the shell. We began some experiments in the laboratory of embryogeny of the College of France, which, without being conclusive, indicated none the less the path to be pursued, and the manner in which onr experiments were to be conducted. In the course of the same year these experi- ments were repeated at Arcachon without much success. Last year we obtained mobile larvae for the first time. The observation much sur- prised us; we had not long to wait, for after an incubation of only twelve hours, a precocious outward manifestation of life was apparent, for already in this phase of their evolution these larvae presented an appearance which left no doubt as to their definitive form. On the other hand, we have found nothing in what iias been pub- lished on the subject of the incubation and transformation of the eggs of Ostrea edulis which recalls the aforementioned phenomenon of pre- cocious movement which had not, we believe, been observed before.* The advanced state of the season where we were, and the difficulties which we had to procure Portuguese oysters at Arcachon in a condi- tion fitted for spawning purposes, did not permit us to continue the *At the time when they occupied themselves busily with tin- artificial fecundation of tish ova, tin* two Vosgian fishermen, Gehin and Remy, Bonghl to discover, or had stated that it would be possible to trout the eggs of the common oyster, the only na- tive species known at that time, by the same methods. Bnt the hermaphroditism of the mollusk having been demonstrated, the] were obliged to abandon this hope. Moreover, had the artificial fecundation been possible, it would have been of no con- sequence industrially, for the reason that tin- eggs ami embryos of Ostrea edulis cannot develop ontside of the incubatory cavit\ of the parent. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 323 experiments profitably, nor to settle those questions which were still obscure. At the end of last season we little thought, considering the slowness with which our studies had progressed, that we would be able in a single campaign to solve the problem of artificial fertilization applicable to the ostracultural industry; we were also not at first as- sured of our ability to produce the manifestation of the phenomena which we have observed with so much interest and upon which rested our hope of final success. In recom inencing the work we were obliged to make choice of a con- venient station for our experiments. The station of Verdon, situated on the left bank of the Gironde, at a distance of several kilometers from the mouth of the river, seemed to us to combine all the desired advan- tages. We were assured of finding there the oysters fitted for spawning, as well as suitable water. In fact, the first attempt which we made in artificial impregnation in fourteen hours afterwards resulted in the production of mobile larva?, notwithstanding that the season for the fry had not yet arrived, commencing at least a mouth later. M. Tripota, one of the veteran ostraculturists, and at the same time one of the most competent, very willingly, at the request of the com- missioner, M. Jouau, placed at our disposal, with a grace and disinter- estedness for which we are under great obligations, two beautiful uii- submersible claires which received fresh water for several days during the spring tide, and which were soon arranged for our use by means of some slight internal alterations. Separated from each other by a straight, massive wall of earth, these two ponds, with an area of about 100 meters each and an average depth of 80 centimeters to 1 meter [27 inches to 3 feet], were placed in communication by means of a pipe, which was closed at either end by a sponge to keep out any sediment in suspension in the water. In this manner all doubt as to the origin of the spat which was collected was guarded against. For the outlet, an apparatus consisting of a wall of fine sand confined by boards permitted the water to percolate through it, but prevented the embryos from escaping with it. The lowermost claire only was utilized in our experiments. The uppermost claire, in which we stored the water whenever it was possible, served as a reservoir from which to decant, the supply-pipe allowing nothing to pass into the experimental claire except clear water. This arrangement completed, the products of artificial fecundation, impregnated in various ways, were poured into the experimental reser voir. This took place in the second week in June. According to our belief, we hoped to find some spat on the collectors placed in the experimental claire at the end of the same month or by the beginning of the month of July. M. Tripota, who had taker active part in the work, and who took my place in my absence, contin- ued to supply the claire with fertilized eggs and mobile embryos. The time assigned for experimental proof having arrived, the collect- 324 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. ors were examined, but they did not bear any apparent trace of spat. This was a deception. Meanwhile, thinking that the season for the fry had not yet began in the Gironde, we expected happier results from our final experiments. The claire was emptied, and some modifications were introduced iu the management of the water, and from day to day mixtures of the generative products were again poured into the claire On the 24th July the tiles were examined. This time all had spat attached. Jt was therefore evident that the first experiments had not been as unsuccessful as we had supposed. In fact, each of the tiles immersed had young oysters attached to the number of twenty or thirty, measuring about a centimeter [two-fifths of an inch] in diameter. This spat was evidently derived from the spawn put out during the end of June or the commencement of July ; but their small size had prevented us from seeing them when the inspection was made at that time. On the 24th July we had specimens about a month old. This fact was all the more remarkable, in that, up to that same time, the collectors placed in the Gironde, in the very center of the spawning beds, did not show a sign of spat. The problem which we had put before ourselves had accordingly re- ceived, from a scientific and practical point of view, a solution iu con- formity with our hopes. It was possible to obtain spat by means of artificial fecundation and to capture it in confined waters. And we no longer had the slightest reason to doubt the identity of that which had caught on our tiles, nor to suppose that it came from the waters without, since there was as yet none apparent in the Gironde, and the tiles in the upper claire, which served to feed the experimental claire, were completely exempt. If in forcing nature's processes we arrive at the same result, that is, provoke the birth of the young before the time of the normal emis- sion of the spawn, there is all the more reason for us to suppose that we have an excellent means to aid and favor her. In pursuing our researches in the establishment of M. Tripota, we did well to vary our means of investigation whenever the same bore upon the industrial aspects of the work. On the rights [parks] along the Canal du Conseiller, and fed by it, there exist old salt marshes, for the most part abandoned, or used for other purposes than formerly, some of which have been transformed into reservoirs for fishes. Those which we appropriated were about two kilometers from the river and from the locality chosen at Verdon, and received fresh supplies of water during the spring tides. They con- sisted of numerous compartments, varying in depth and communicating by wide trenches cut into the banks separating them from each other. Their total extent somewhat exceeded a hectare. During the new and Cull moon the gate controlling the supply was opened to allow the fish carried by the current to enter and to renew the water. This maneuver was repeated many times during the tide. On account of the situation BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 325 occupied by this marsh along the exposed shores of the Gironde the water is never stagnant, even at the time of the neap tides. The sea- breezes and winds which follow the course of the river aerate it per- petually and agitate its surface. Those which we had chosen measured 5 to 6 feet in depth at the center and 2 to 3 along the margin. Stakes placed at intervals supported the fragments of tiles suspended with iron wire. From the beginning of July to the end of August, M. Gassiau, school- master at Verdou, who assisted us during the entire campaign, with an intelligence, zeal, and devotion worthy of the highest praise, took care to pour into the inclosures, several times a week, the products of the artificial fecundations which he prepared with rare skill and certainty. Three hundred oysters only were used iu these experiments. On the 8th of August he visited the collectors, and observed on all of them, without exception, hundreds of young oysters, measuring one- half to two millimeters in diameter [^ to ^ of an inch]. The spat grown from each of the successive lots of fertilized spawn could be dis- tinguished by its size, which corresponded to its age. Having the curiosity to know how many fixed themselves to one tile, we counted more than eight hundred on a single piece of tile, of which the size was one-fifth that of an entire one. This time our success was complete. Up to the end of August, the time when the oysters had nearly all spawned, the spat continued to attach itself just as abundantly to all kinds of collectors with which it came in contact indiscriminately, frag- ments of ti les, pieces of wood, boards, &c. Doubt was no longer possible. The pessimists asked whether our nurslings would grow and develop equal to those which were naturally collected on the banks of the Gironde. We responded to this objection by sending some of the tiles to be placed in the parks at Arcachon, where they remained for a month and a half. These tiles and fragments of tiles figured at the end of September in the exposition at Bordeaux by the side of those which had been brought by MM. Tripota and Gassiau. We also found that the spat born in the beginning of July, in the closed claire, measured from three to four centimeters in diameter, and that whicli was collected in the salt-marsh by the end of July and during the month of August had attained the dimension of one centi- meter [two-fifths of an inch] in diameter. Finally, during the early part of October, we had the honor of presenting to the minister of marine a tile upon which two thousand young oysters could be counted, measuring from one to two centimeters [two-fifths to four-fifths of an inch] in diameter. It now remained for us to make a final demonstration. It was nec- essary to prove that the spat which was collected did not primarily emanate from the banks in the Gironde, but was the result of the artificial fecundations practiced under our care. This proof was evi- 32 J BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. dently superfluous after what had taken place in the closed aud poorly aerated waters of the claire where we had in the first place established ourselves. We knew, in fact, that the person who cultivated the marsh had attempted in vain, two or three years before, to collect spat. But, in undertaking this counter-experiment, we had a two-fold object in view, viz, to clear up all doubts, if such still existed, as to the value and advantages of the method of artificial fecundation, and that of creating a sentiment in its favor. This proof had to be conclusive. At the entrance to a fish-pond close to the one used by us, of nearly the same extent, similarly arranged and receiving water from the same canal, had been placed the tiles upon which it was thought the spat coming from the river would not fail to attach itself. At that time the oysters were in the height of reproductive activity; the collectors in the Giroude were being charged with spat, and ours in the other pond were being covered as fast as and in the proportion that they were im- mersed. We expected to find some young oysters on the collectors put down as a test. There was nothing on them, however; these collectors remained completely free of all traces of spat. THE METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZATION. Imperfect and incomplete as our methods of artificial fertilization still are, we think it useful to make them known. In fact, there is no better way perhaps to aid in bringing them to that perfection of which they seem to be susceptible. After many trials and experiments, we have found the following to be the most practicable: It is easy, after a little practice, to determine the sex of the Portuguese oyster with the naked eye. A small portion of the matter contained in the genital gland is taken and placed on a plate of glass and diluted with a quantity of sea-water many times in excess of the volume of the portion of spawn. When the subject is female, the liquid appears granular, and upon examining it with care we see the ovules which the water lias set free or separated. If it is a male, the mixing of the water with the seminal fluid is more difficult, and the liquid remains opaque and milky. With the aid of a pocket lens the distinction is very easily made. The choice of spawning individuals is not, we have reason to think, a matter of indifference to the success of the operation. We would reject for this purpose oysters from shallow water or such as are fre- quently uncovered by the tide.* We have never obtained good results " Our belief as to the sterility of certain brood-oysters rests upon two very impor- tant observations made al the island of Oleron. It was in vain that we attempted to fertilize the spawn of oysters taken from the higher levels of the oyster grounds of tli<- island, while at the same time, under the same conditions, in the same medium, with the same water, and under the same external influences, the experiments resulted in the formation of mobile embryos, if spawners were used from the same shore, but from deeper water. We would, however, make certain reservations in this regard. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 327 with them. The fecundation is effectual, cleavage sometimes proceeds to an advanced stage, bat all at once the development is arrested, the eggs undergo alterations, and their membrane ruptures. To avoid all inconveniences of this kind it is best to usespawners taken from active and deep waters. It is also important to assure one's self that the sexual products used are quite mature.. In the absence of any means of verification by means of the microscope, an instrument pos- sessed by lew ostraeulturists, the following methods are to be resorted to: First, by an inspection of the genital gland. If it is transparent at one point, it shows that the evacuation of the generative products has commenced, and that consequently those elements are mature. (This remark applies to the gland of the male as well as to that of the female.) Secondly, by freeing the eggs from the ovary. If the eggs are easily detached, by simply stroking with a fine camel's-hair pencil, we may consider them fitted for fertilization. It seems, however, that infertile ovules detach themselves easily from the gland, but that this does not take place unless the spawning oysters have been injured. Finally we find that the seminal liquor seems to act most efficiently when it mixes readily with the water,* This disposition noted, and after having prepared a vessel one-half or one third full of sea-water, au incision is made in the ovarian gland, and we detach the eggs by means of a soft, flexible brush or pencil, from which they are deposited in the vessel as fast as they are removed. We find that their impreg. nation is facilitated if they are subjected to a washing at this time. This operation purges theai of impurities which are still adherent, .and brings about the dissociation of those which still stick together. With this object we shake the contents of the vessel with the hand or stir them with the pencil, when the liquid is allowed to settle. In one- half to one hour afterwards the uninjured ova have settled at the bot- tom of the vessel ; that which remains in suspension in the water; vitel- line matters, ruptured membranes, injured eggs, &c, is to be poured off. It is of advantage to repeat this process of decantation. The seminal liquor [milt] is obtained by the same means as the eggs, but there is no necessity for any preliminary preparation. It is simply "The microscope is now of the greatest utility, if we wish to assure ourselves of the quality of the fertilizing element. This element, in order that it may serve its purpose satisfactorily, when examined with a sufficiently strong magnifying power, it is necessary that the animalcules of which it consists should appear segregated, independent, and active. During cold weather they are often immobile, hut they are often only benumbed ; it is then only necessary to expose them to warm air or place them in water at a temperature of 22° C. to 25° C. (71° F. to 77°F.), in order to cause them to vibrate and display activity. Segregation of the spermatic particles may be produced under certain circumstances by the same process. Cases of infertility of the milt are generally very rare. [The segregation or dissociation of the seminal par- ticles or spermatozoa by diluting the sperm with water is an important fact, and one that has thrust itself upon the notice of the translator in observing the fresh milt of both oysters and fishes. It seems quite inactive in some cases before dilution; its activity is then at once provoked by the addition of water. — Ti:. ] 328 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. poured into the same vessel with the latter, impregnation taking place at once.* From that moment the successive phenomena of development are not easy to follow under the microscope. We find, after the generative elements are brought into contact, that the egg, which was at first pear-shaped, becomes more and more nearly round; the germinative vesicle is effaced and disappears totally, the polar globules appear at one point on the periphery, the egg segments into two, three, and four parts, the number of which goes on increasing until it finally assumes the mulberry or morula form. In order to clearly describe the trans- formations of the egg, it would be necessary to have illustrations ap- pended. In the course of seven or eight hours of incubation, accord- ing to the temperature, the embryos begin to move, and a mobile larva appears.t The mobility of the larva is manifested in accelerated movements of rotation or by sudden starts across the field of view in which they are observed. Sometimes they rotate as if on a pivot, sometimes they re- main quite immobile; but if we examine them with care we find that the vibratile cilia with which they are provided continually manifest their peculiar motions. Arrived at this period of their existence, and in consequence of their small size, they become difficult to observe.} We have observed the rudiment of the shell at about the seventh day of development. [This is sometimes formed in twenty-four hours in the American species. — Tr.] Fertilization will succeed without conforming rigorously to the direc- tions which we have given. The determination Of the sexes, for ex- ample, is not absolutely necessary, for, in operating with a certain num- ber of sexually mature adults, it is certain that both males and females will be found amongst them. The same remark applies to washing the eggs; butwe would insist that it is a useful precaution which has real advantages and facilitates the study of the phenomena of develop- ment. * According to the observations made in the laboratory of M. Balhiani by M. Henne- guy, the egg of Ostrea angalata appears to be provided with a micropyle at its point of attachment to the follicle, that is to say, at the extremity of its pedicle. t At Verdon we have obtained mobile embryos seven hours after the fecundation, with the water at a temperature of 22° C. (71° F). [Theeggsof the American oyster, with the water at 78° F. to 80° F., will hatch in live hours. — Tit.] tThe volume of the larva is about equal to the egg. Now, the egg of (Mrca aniju- lata,if we suppose it to be perfectly Bpherical, and we take the smallest diameter of this sphere, measures 52 millimeters [ T i n th of an inch]; tbe volume is consequently .1073584th of a cubic millimeter. For the sake of comparison, measurements of the following species are appended : The unisexual oyster of Dackar; diameter of the eg^. 41? millimeters. The hermaphroditic oyster of Toulon (Ostrea plkatiila); diameter of the egg, 95- millimeters. The common oyster (0. cdulis), hermaphroditic; diameter of the egg, 122 milli- meters. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES PISH COMMISSION. 323 We would add, in conclusion, that the generative elements may be preserved for some hours, without being brought into contact, and not lose any of their vital properties. Our collaborators have obtained the best results when the generative products were not mixed together for one or two hours after they were removed from the glands. We will close this part of our essay with allusions to some observa- tions relative to, first, the influence apparently exercised by the den- sity of the water on the process of fertilization; secondly, artificial incu- bation. The water employed at Verdon had a density of about two and a quarter to three degrees, measured by the hydrometer for an in- dicated specific gravity of about 1.014 to 1.020 of Baume's scale, the one probably used. — Tr.] At Cette, the waters of the Mediterranean were successfully used;: the specific gravity in this case was nearly 4 degrees [or nearly 1.027]. In the present condition of our researches it is difficult to reach any conclusion in regard to the facts just recorded, particularly the two pre- ceding. It does not seem any the less certain that if the oysters will not be able to become sexually active in very saline waters, it does not appear that such waters are inimical to fertilization and development. [This was not the experience of the translator with the spawn of the American oyster. It was found in fact that water of a markedly higher specific gravity than that from which the spawning adults was taken was injurious, especially to the milt. — Tr.] In respect to the attempts at artificial incubation, we would say that we have employed [temperature] methods similar to those used in incubat- ing birds' eggs. The eggs of the oysters placed in water maintained at a uniform temperature of 20° C. [68° F.J were hatched in six and a half hours. It would be profitable to make experiments in this direction j for, if the method of artificial incubation is successful as applied in- dustrially, it would be carried on at all times, except during cold, stormy weather, which kills both the eggs as well as the larvse. With our pres- ent processes the incubation as well as the fertilization are not very successful, except when the weather is warm and fair. APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL FECUNDATION. Is it necessary to have recourse to the economy of artificial methods,, in view of the evidence in favor of its advantages, opening up, as it does, a new field in the ostracultural industry? The Portuguese oyster is endowed with surprising fertility. * If all of * A cubic centimetre of ovary yields : Ova. By the method of dissociation 2, 500, 000 By the method of section .' 5,200,000 Total 7,700,000 (Mean, 3,850,000.) The volume of the ovary of an oyster of medium size varies between 6 and 8 cubie 330 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the eggs annually produced by the innumerable individuals to which the Gironde affords protection would hatch out, and if also the waters of the river contained sufficient food to nourish them, the adjacent portions of the sea would soon be tilled up. The causes of the destruction are numerous and powerful, for the crop of fry is always abundant, and either in consequence of inclemeut weather or during high winds, tem- pestuous waves disperse and destroy the legions of larvae which are in process of incubation. Now, the methods which we extol would enable us to escape some of these evils, and would assure those who put them in practice of a certain crop, by protecting the fry from the fluctuations of the temperature, and by this means persisting bad weather would not compromise the regular abundance. We have already remarked that it is not a siugle crop of fry which we have each year, but two, and perhaps three. In fact, the season for the fry lasts for at least three months. This interval is sufficient, we have learned with certainty, at Verdon, to permit us to place the collectors three times in the same claire, when the fry will adhere each time. The localities adapted for the hatching establishments are not want- ing; they are to be found near the mouths of most of our rivers. Two conditions only are necessary: the waters should be brackish and have a specitic gravity of 1.014 to 1.020, and be readily renewed. Perhaps it would serve us much better to show up the advantages of our system by borrowing some data from fluvial fish-culture. We know with what success we now treat the eggs of fishes by methods of artificial fertilization, of which M. Coste determined and stated the laws. The cause of the depopulation of the waters is the want of proper economy; and it may be said that in every European state the question of fish-culture is the order of the day, and takes the first rank amongst those economical questions claiming prompt solution. To this end special laboratories for the practice of fish-culture have been established in Switzerland, Germany, England, Russia, Norway, etc. Artificial fertilization is the raison (Vetre, and is the basis of their operations. These have given results much superior to those which are obtained by allowing nature to have her own way. For example, of 1,000 eggs fertilized artificially and cared for in hatching boxes, 980 hatch perfectly, while of those left to themselves in the open waters it is estimated that 90 per centum are lost. We admit that the eggs of the salmonoids are much better adapted, on account of their large size, to artificial treatment, than those of Ostrco angulata; but even if this comparison is hardly fair, the dimin- ished losses which would result from the application of artificial centimetres. There, are consequently about 20,000,000 eggs discharged anuually by an oyster three to lour years old. In the ease of the common oyster (O. edulis) this number is reduced to 1,200,000 to 1,500,000 eggs. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 331 methods to the eggs of the unisexual oysters would none the less be a fruitful operation. We see what occurs under natural conditions. The mother oyster discharges its eggs in considerable numbers. Bat how many are there of those which in the immensity of the surrounding- waters find favorable conditions for their life? The estimation of the losses is difficult, but if we base our calculation upon the proportions indicated above, we will find that of the twenty millions of eggs pro- duced daring one season but two millions ever attain the condition of mobile larva 1 . Once brought to this phase of transformation, how many attach themselves to the collectors? There is little hope that more than a tenth part escape the manifold dangers by which they are constantly surrounded. In the closed claires it is otherwise. We at once guar- antee the impregnation of all the fertilizable eggs, placed as they are in forced contact with the fecundating element. There is thus sup- pressed the prime cause of the destruction of germs, without doubt the most important. We also escape a second and also serious cause of mortality, in protecting the embryos in the, closed reservoirs, where, sheltered from dangers of all kinds to which they are exposed without, they pass undisturbedly through the period of their pelagic existence, till the time when they find themselves in need of the collectors, which they will readily find, and to which they will fix themselves. Figures will be more eloquent than many arguments; one hundred fertilized eggs have produced eighty mobile larvae. This is the mean result of our experience at Verdou. Considered in its industrial relations, the system of capturing the fry in closed waters would be infinitely more economical than the present system. The only collectors suitable for great depths are the tiles, which, on account of their weight, oppose a resistance to the currents ; boards, slates, and other light bodies have been successively abandoned. But the tiles are raised with difficulty after they are disposed in nests on the beds. They are put out only when the fry is abundant, or when it is being discharged during certain tides and favorable times. Iu confined waters [claires] we could put down or remove the collec- tors at any phase of the moon, no matter what might be the state of the sea, without incurring the risk of breaking them. Nor would it be necessary to fix them to the bottom. Moreover, we would not employ tiles exclusively, for, while the tile is an excellent collector, it also has its disadvantages, especially on the shores of the Gironde, where this mode of rearing the oyster is not in favor. Since their great weight renders their transportation costly, they remain in position only till the spat may have reached the size necessary for detrocage [or detachment], from which cause the growth of the spat is delayed for a year. Xot to neglect any of the aspects iu which ostraculture may perhaps be viewed, permit us to spy that the following methods appear practi- cable: Firstly, the introduction and acclimation iu our waters of uni- 332 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. sexual species of oysters, like those of Dakar, America, etc. ; secondly,, the establishment of beds at different places known to be favorable along - our coast. This work of colonization would present no very great difficulties, cor would it entail a very heavy expense. This might be carried out at the mouth of one of our rivers — the Charente or Adour, for example, the mouths of which are known to be well adapted as breeding and hatching basins. In these reservoirs during three months we would pour the ferti- lized products of thousands of oysters, and allow the resulting embryos to disperse themselves freely in the river. If the collectors, tiles, stones, or shells were then spread on the bed of the river, a. bank would soou be formed ; and if they repeat this operation for two or three years,, this bank will be sufficiently important to become an object of regular and productive improvement. CULTURE. Our experiments in propagation have for their necessary complement the study of the question of. culture. We are now assured of no lack of the spat of the Portuguese oyster. The culturists of Verdon who furnish it need have no anxietv about finding sale for what is collected during the spawning season. Arcachon'will take a large quantity, and we need scarcely observe that its employment will render it possible to utilize lands supposed to be unproductive, and also abandoned parks which have been found not adapted to the culture of the common oys- ter. Their cultivation is still practiced in some places on the island of Oleron, and in some of the claires of the Seudre and of La Rochelle. But the area devoted to this special industry is necessarily very limited, because, in spite of the favorable reports on the culture [education] of the oyster of the Tagns, the culturists do not appear disposed, at pres- ent at least, to abandon, in preference to the latter, the culture of the French oyster. It is now important to find suitable fields for the exercise of the en- ergies of the maritime population ; to find sites suitable for the establish- ments of which we are in need. We have extended our survey in part over our sea-coast, where por- tions of the beach still remain unused, and in part along the shores of the Mediterranean, where we encounter a vast chaplet of lagoons, which are separated from the lake of Berre, where they do not termi- nate, however, and after a short interruption of continuity end at the lake of Le Canet. At the sea-shore we would designate some places along the Charente and Adour, and particularly certain plains in the valley of the Gironde, where, as at Verdon, the industry is almost entirely neglected. The opinion of the inhabitants of this coast is, that the culture of the oyster is there neither possible nor advantageous. This opinion has no fouu- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 333 datioii in fact, because it is not possible to doubt that the Portuguese oyster will thrive in any medium favorable to it. Such an opinion would be contrary to the teachings of natural history. We believe also that, in the Lower Medoc district, they will at some future time collect their spat in the Gironde. Meanwhile the intelligent culturists are boldly immersing on the beds in the river thousands of collectors, which are rapidly covered wrh young oysters. This example is bearing fruit. This year the park-culturists of Verdon have put down 120,000 tiles. Next year their imitators will be more numerous. It would be the same with the rearing (elevage) of the oyster, and if some one would make an initial attempt, with the proper means, it would be found that the grounds of Verdon, the nature of which is similar to those of Arcachon, where the Portuguese oyster, after detachment from the collectors, grows to an edible size in a year and a half, would produce oysters equal to those of the latter place in size and fatness. Up to the present the oyster industry of Verdon has simply limited itself to the following : To fish and dredge up every year whatever of oysters have ac- cumulated on the beds and concessions, and transport them as promptly as possible to the cultural stations.* It is true that the attempts at culture, in the manner urged by us, have not here given the best results. The oysters do very well at first in the claires and marshes, but if their stay is prolonged, they soon sicken. What is the cause of their decline? All those who have had experience in ostraculture would say, the want of fresh water and the renewal of the sea- water; in a word, the absence of oxygen and food in a sufficient quantity to nourish the oysters contained in the rearing ponds. We would mention, as relating to this subject, a very remarkable fact. On the Canal de Eambaud there is a park, constructed under the direction of the municipality of Verdon, into which the scattered oys- ters gathered along the coast are deposited. The oysters which here find an asylum grow so rapidly that we have been enabled to present to the administration of the marine some specimens of them which in the space of less than three months had grown from 3 centimeters [1| of an inch] to 8 and 9 centimeters [3 to 3% inches] in diameter. The explanation of this phenomenon is as follows: The municipal claire, whose aquatic inhabitants no epidemic has ever disturbed, is situated at the level of the canal, receiving water from it twice a day, the water at most remaining stagnant only two or three days. We have expressed the wish, and commended the matter to the en- * We would here make an exception in favor of M. Bouckotte, who has established some very well managed cultural parks at Pointe de Grave. But these parks are not of the sort which we would see established. Another exception we would note, in M. Tripota, who himself instituted a series of very instructive and interesting exper- iments; and also in M. Peponnet. These are the only ones who may have established claires for artificial culture. 334 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. lightened attention of the minister of marine, that the work of deepen- ing and eleaning the canals of Bainbaud and Le Conseiller be under- taken. The realization of this idea, giving to the honest and interest- ing population along the Gironde an opportunity for which they have long waited, would permit them to practice oyster-culture on the spot at Verdon, and would have the effect of yielding up hundreds of hec- tares to industrial enterprise. We will turn our attention to the Atlantic coasts and the shores of the Mediterranean. We are here brought into the presence of immense beaches and lagoons which no one has ever attempted to reclaim. Would it not, therefore, be found that the ponds of Berre, Caronte, Le Gloria, Mauguio, Palavas, Frontignau, Thau, Sigean, and Leueate are suitable for an enterprise of this kind? Does it not seem as if human industry might put an eud to their sterility? The aquicultural industry, for example, for which they seem to have been designed, would it not be able to there establish and develop itself? We have studied the southern coast in detail, the aridity of which presents an afflicting spectacle, and in passing from one to another of the stations along these shores we have been convinced that they might become a field for active, industry and a source of national prosperity. This conviction I have endeavored to^cause the members of the sen- atorial commission, in charge of the restocking of our waters, to share with me, in making the report to them of the investigation with which they had the honor to charge me in 1880." The plan of the present report was limited exclusively to a single branch of aquiculture, having put aside everything which relates to marine pisciculture and myticulture [culture of mussels] in order to devote ourselves exclusively to the subject of the culture of the oyster. We may ask why the grand movement under the direction of the mar- itime administration and M. Coste, which determined the inauguration of the oyster industry on the shores of the ocean, did not extend to the French coasts of the Mediterranean. Are the waters not adapted to the precious mollusk ; would they not be able" to nourish it '. Yes, most assuredly. The oyster is no stranger to our southern ocean. They were formerly to be had at Port de Bone, at Cette, on the Bocher-d'Agde, at Narbonne, &c. We still find fine ones, not to speak of the French coast, at Toulon and in salt-water ponds in Corsica. Furthermore, we have seen magnificent beds established in the roads [bay] of Toulon, well ordered and managed, and which have nothing to envy in the splendid cultivations established on the shores of the ocean. At Cette, in the canal connecting the lagoon of Thau with the sea, the cultivators have established floating parks of small dimensions, for the largest will not exceed forty square meters in area, on which they pile up and fatten more than a million oysters annually. We find, there- fore, that the waters of the Mediterranean possess the qualities neces- sary to the growth and prosperity of the oyster. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 335 The principal reasons why the ostracultural industry has not yet es- tablished itself on our southern coast are, in the first place, the ignor- ance of the art of aquiculture, for want of an example to follow, on the part of the maritime population of those districts; in the second, the poor success of the attempts already made; and, finally, the greater suc- cess of all those who devote themselves to the culture of the vine, the silk-worm, and madder. Times are now changed; different scourges have visited our southern provinces and ruined their secular industries. A more marked exodus of the population has now manifested itself for some years; the inhabitants with regret leave the land where they were born — they no longer yield them what will suffice for the needs of ex- istence. This emigration would be arrested the day that a new indus- try came to furnish a field for their activities. Do we not know that oyster culture alone on our ocean shores regularly gives the means of existence to more than 200,000 persons? What immense resources would they not yield if the shores of the south could be taken ap and developed in proportion to the extent to which they are capable? But if it is necessary to cite the example of the western coasts, where the cultivation of the oyster has always been practiced, in an imperfect manner it is true ; if the citation of this example were necessary, we repeat, to illustrate the splendid results which we would record, there is all the more reason why the southern coasts should be cultivated, where the people have always ignored the very first principles of oyster culture. The examples of Toulon and Cette are too much isolated, and their influence extends over too restricted an area to provoke extensive imi- tation. It is asked if the success met with at those places could be as readily achieved in the Gulf of Marseilles, in the lagoon of Berre, and in those of Languedoc and Bousillon. Conscious of the utility of the efforts which have been made on the Mediterranean coasts, we have been authorized by the administration of the marine to make some ex- periments in the lagoon of Thau, in some of the estuaries of Langue- doc, in the Gulf of Fos, and the lagoon of Berre, which have related especially to the artificial reproduction of the Portuguese oyster and its culture. The work of artificial fertilization, using spawning adults which came from the Gironde, has, after some uncertainty, been clearly success- ful. M. Hardy, deputy of the administration of the marine at Cette, whom we instructed in our methods, wrote us, three weeks after our ex- periments were commenced, that the artificial fertilizations conducted by him resulted in producing mobile embryos in sixty five cases out of a hundred. This was nearly the. average attained at Verdon. All that was needed was to disseminate these larvae in a favorable medium and to place collectors in proximity. The rock of Rouqueyrol, situated in the center of the lagoon of Thau, seemed to be favorable, and we had 336 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the tiles coated with lime placed around it; but we did not consider the poachers, who, profiting by the cover of the night, destroyed and broke up our tiles and apparatus. It did not seem worth while to repeat our experiments, seeing that the spawning season was already well advanced when the foregoing occurred. We no longer doubt, after what we have seen and the experi- ence which we had in these matters, that the oyster will soon be propa- gated in the waters of the Mediterranean by the method employed by us. In regard to rearing, we have remarked that the Portuguese oyster adapts itself very readily to the waters of our southern coasts; but we have not noted with exactitude the rate of their growth, having pro- tected our stock in a cage, a mode of culture which would appear adapted to these shores, where those deadly enemies of the oyster, the boring whelks, are found in multitudes. Our conclusion it is easy to foresee. In conformity with what has been stated, we must acknowledge that the oyster industry may be developed and prosper on the French coasts of the Mediterranean. We cannot close this report without considering the mollusk which has been under discussion in respect to its edible and commercial qual- ities. We know, however, that this species of oyster has its detractors. At one time these had reached the point of demanding its total exter- mination. The pretext was, as we have said, the pretended danger that it would interbreed with and affect the purity of our native oyster, but the true reason was the fear that it would replace the French oyster in the esteem of the consumers; in a word, it was a rival. We have shown what justice there was in this pretext. As to the real rea- son, that has no foundation. Has the sale and exportation of the indig- enous oyster (designating by that name the flat oyster [0. edulis], for the oyster of the Tagus may now also be considered indigenous) dimin- ished since the appearance of its rival ? This does not appear to be the fact. Have our ostracultural establishments been encumbered by products which they could not dispose of? Not at all. The business is perhaps now less remunerative than formerly, because the number of dealers and producers is much greater; but all of the oysters that are reared or gathered are sold either in France or to other countries; and it is the same with the celebrated establishments, which find it im- possible to supply the demand made upon them from all sides. If the Portuguese oyster becomes the object of an important trade, and if it now contributes largely to the public food-supply, it will not be to the detriment of our native species. Because, relatively abundant, it is better known, and, because of its cheapness, it is procurable by those of slender means. These are the causes which make for it many parti- sans. Moreover, would the reasons urged justify the interdiction of what is to-day an important ostracultural industry? Is it necessary to reduce to misery, on account of some particular dissatisfied interests, BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 337 so many honest people who, thanks to this mollusk, feel, perhaps for the first time in a long while, that their condition has improved? Is it necessary to reduce the unproductive lands which they have converted into fertile parks to their primitive sterility? Is it necessary to arrest that progress which seems destined to bring oyster culture into favor on those parts of the French coasts where it is not yet devel- oped? And, from the point of view of political economy, would it not be most unreasonable to interfere with the production of a food-supply, under co^er of the singular pretext that it interfered with and ruined the sale of a more delicate rival ? Do we need to defend the harvesting of rye because wheat is better? Yes, it has been said that the Portu- guese oyster was very much inferior to its rival in respect to flavor. This is possible, but this is a point to be decided by the consumer. The administration should have no preference, nor be orthodox in the matter of the flavor of oysters. Do they not tell us that Americans have not the proper delicacy of taste because they relish the oyster of Virginia, which these persons would esteem but little more than Ostrea angulata ? But it is not only in America that that species is relished, but all over Europe; in France, in England, and in the whole of Northern Germany, where it is brought both in the fresh state and canned. We have no fears regarding the propagation of the Portuguese oyster in our waters, because, seeing the facility with which it is reared and its rapid growth, it occupies an important place as a food product, in consequence of which it will always find a ready market. If our ostra- cultural establishments would but produce a much larger quantity they might be exported in lieu of the American oyster, with the additional advantage that they would be fattened in the parks before they were taken to market. But in the present state of the industry we are not able to supply the demands of home consumption. Each year, vessels go in search of cargoes of them in the Tagus j but, in spite of this, they have great difficulty in obtaining them for our ostracultural stations, so that the important dealers in common or flat oysters, in view of this condition of things, have not agreed to supply more than a certain per- centage of Portuguese oysters. We are conscious, moreover, that the detractors of this species are becoming less numerous; that, as the culture of this mollusk tends to become general and cultivators devote themselves to it, they will not be of those who will realize the least of its benefits. Here, then, the new method is unfolded. We should not forget that we now occupy the first place in Europe as regards oyster culture; we should not neglect maintaining it. In conclusion, it remains my duty to express my thanks to the func- tionaries of the marine for the enlightened and hearty assistance they have rendered me at all times, especially M. de Choisy, chief of the service at Bordeaux, and MM. Jouau, commissary at Pauillac; l'Hopital, Bull. U. S. F. 0., 82 22 April 25, 1883. 338 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. commissary at la Teste; Alle'gu, at commissary Martigues; and, finally, to M. the commissary SCnes. We would also express to M. Hardy, at Cette, our sincere thanks for the zeal he has shown and pains he has taken to aid and second us in our efforts. Our thanks are also due to M. Curet, captain; to M. Blanchereau and M. Dutemple. APPENDIX. ANALYSES OF THE PORTUGUESE AND COMMON OYSTER. Portuguese oysters, originally f Iodine ... ^| ,„ . .„. - . , * i ] t> • - 105 S ram m every 100 grams of from Arcachon, or having been mw Bromine., s.. _f ... . f , ,. ' , ) „, , . f the soft parts of the animal, ported there at least a year. [ Chlorine . I »-r ,. t^ , TT f Iodine... 1 Native Portuguese oysters of Ver- J . i .11 gram in every 100 grams of, don. | C £|™V^" ; J the soft parts. {Iodine . . - ^ Bromine I ,057 S ram in every 100 grams of Chlorine f the soft parts. Note by the Translator. — The resemblance of the Portuguese and American oysters is in some respects most striking. In both, the impressions of the adductors are dark purple, while in 0. edulis it is almost invariably colorless. The muscle of both of the first-mentioned species is much more tender and evidently more readily digestible than that of the latter. 0. edulis is smaller, and in every way inferior to both of the unisexual species. The Portuguese oyster differs, however, considerably from the Ameri- can in the form of the snell. The lower valve of the former is much more concave internally than that of the American, and the upper valve is often singularly bent to fit it. The internal-hinge border of the lower valve also frequently overhangs the cephalic end of the internal con- cavity of the latter to an extent rarely, if ever, met with in our species. The body-mass is a very conspicuous portion of the soft parts of the Portuguese oyster. It is relatively much thicker from side to side than in any other species I have seen. The stratum of generative tissue is also of an extraordinary average thickness, actually far exceeding in proportional volume the same layer in either the American or common oyster of Europe. It appears that the spat of Ostrea angulata, like that of the American species, grows much more rapidly than that of O. edulis. For data re- specting the rate of growth of the spat of the American oyster, see my report, pp. C0-G2, in the appendix to the Annual Report of the Com- missioner of Fisheries of Maryland for 1881. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 339 ON THE SEXUALITY OF THE COMMON OYSTER (O. edulis) AND THAT OF THE PORTUGUESE OYSTER (O. angulata). ARTIFICIAL FECUN- DATION OF THE PORTUGUESE OYSTER.* By UI. BOVCHON-BRANDELY. Twenty or twenty-five years ago the Portuguese oyster, indigenous to the Tagus, did not exist on the coasts of France. It was acclimated in our waters altogether accidentally. A vessel from Portugal discharged its cargo so as to repair some damages it had sustained. The oysters which it .carried were thrown into the Gironde, on the old Bone de Richard ; here having met with the conditions favorable to their propa- gation, they have multiplied in such numbers that, from the Point de Grave to Richard, for a distance of 25 to 30 kilometers, they form a vast bed, the extent of which will soon be limited only by the banks of the river. The sexuality of this oyster differs essentially from that of the other kinds common in our waters, the most widely diffused of which is 0. edulis. The latter is hermaphrodite as established by Lacaze-Duthiers, Coste, Davaine, Mobius, Eyton, Hart, and others. Is it a self-sufficing hermaph- rodite? With respect to this nothing has yet been demonstrated. It is highly probable that they are not self- fecundating, if we take into account the fact that the genital gland rarely presents the two sexes at the same degree of maturity. The Portuguese oyster, on the contrary, is unisexual. This fact is in- contestable. We have opened a great number, taken at all phases of the reproductive period, and all were exclusively male or exclusively female. On the other hand, and contrary to that which occurs in the common oyster, where fecundation is accomplished in the interior of the valves, in the Portuguese oyster the eggs are expelled from the shell into the water outside, where they meet with the fertilizing element. Never, in fact, did we find either ova or embryos in the mantle of 0. angulata. A fact which also goes far to prove this is the following: The eggs and embryos of the Portuguese oyster develop in pure sea-water, while those of the common oyster, at least during the whole of the period of gesta- tion of the egg to the moment when the embryo abandons its maternal shelter, cannot live outside of the liquid contained in the shell, a liquid which, according to an analysis made in the laboratory of M. Berthe- * De la sexuality chez VHuitre ordinaire (O. edulis) et chez VHuitre portugaise (0. angu- lata). Fecondation artificielle de V Huitre portugaise. Note de M. Bouchon-Brandehj, pre- sentee par M. Berthelot. Comptes rendus heodomadaires des Stances de VAcademie des Sciences. Fol.XCV, No. 5 (31 Juillet 1882), pp. 256-259. Paris, 1882. Translated by John A. Ryder. 340 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. lot, contains albumen in a notable proportion. It was in vain that we attempted to preserve the embryos of 0. edulis in renewed and aerated sea- water until their complete development, even though they had at- tained the state of white or that of gray fry. The white embryos died after two or three days, the gray embryos after twelve or fifteen days, although they were in the presence of collectors to which they could attach themselves. These facts show the essential differences between the two species of oysters, and exclude all idea of interbreeding and make us reject the preconceived theory of hybridization entertained by some ostracul- turists. We have, moreover, made direct experiments in hybridization which gave only negative results. In this manner, in several attempts last season and this, we have brought together the eggs of the Portuguese oyster and the zoosperms of the common oyster, and reciprocally; never, under the conditions where we have experimented, the sexual elements not being brought together naturally and instinctively, was there a sign of fecundation or of development. The sexual elements of 0. angulata being, as one might say of them, clearly separated, we have conceived the possibility of achieving their artificial fecundation. The example of Brooks, of the [Johns Hopkins] University of Baltimore, who had made successful attempts in the arti- ficial fecundation of Ostrea virginiana, was, to say the least, encourag- ing. Here is, after numerous experiments, the mode of fecundation which we have adopted. It is easy, after some experience, to distinguish the sexes of the adults with the naked eye. We detached the eggs from the ovary by means of a camel's hair pencil, and they were then placed in a vessel filled with sea-water — a vial, for example. To separate them and free them from the foreign matters with which they are surrounded, we shook the vial for a few moments, when the liquid was allowed to stand. The eggs which are fit for fecundation then fall to the bottom of the vessel ; that which remains in suspension is to be thrown away. Decanting the latter we renew the water in the vessel, and it is suffi- cient to add a small portion of seminal liquor, upon which the eggs are immediately surrounded and rolled by the mobile zoosperms; the first phases of fecundation commence soon afterward. The ova and spermatozoa retain their vital properties for several hours, without being in contact, in water. Our most successful experi- ments were made with elements which were not brought into contact until two or three hours after their extraction from the genital glands. We will not describe the first phases of development of the eggs, but we think there deserves to be mentioned a fact which has not hitherto been observed, viz, that the embryos of 0. angulata commence to swim, according to temperature, at from seven to twelve hours after fecunda- tion. At Verdon we have had them to do so in seven hours, the water having a temperature of 22° [0. 71° F.j Their movements of translation BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 341 are of a rotatory, gyratory character; at times they turn about a point as upon a pivot; at other times they change place rapidly and traverse the field view in which they are observed. The shell is formed about the sixth or seventh day after impregna- tion. Artificial fecundation presents no difficulties, and results four times out of five in the formation of mobile embryos, if good spawn is used. Oviposition proceeds gradually in the Portuguese oyster, and some- times for several weeks. When the genital gland becomes transparent at one point it shows that the sexual products are ripe, and that they may be used to advantage. Because of what has just been said, and in view of the exceptional fecundity of the oyster of the Tagus* [0. angulata], we have attempted to make some practical applications. With this object, we have ar- ranged at Verdon a claire of 100 square meters in area, into which we have poured the animated products of diverse artificial fecundations. The difficulty to be overcome was to prevent the escape of the embryos and assure the renewal of the water. We have attained these ends by making the water pass in and flow out through a bed of fine sand. After a month of repeated experiments our efforts were crowned with success. We have had the satisfaction to find some spat fixed upon each of the tiles placed in our experimental claire. This is all the more remarkable, since, up to this time, the past week, there has been no spat attached to the innumerable collectors immersed upon the oyster banks of the Giroude — that is to say, in the very center of the reproductive area. A HVBRID PLAICE-PLATE8SA VULGARIS WITH RHOMBUS OTAXI- JMUS.t By K. E. II. KRAUSE. On the 21st day of August, of this year, a remarkable -looking plaice was shown to me, and the question arose whether it was not a turbot. It had been sold by the fish woman Havernick of Warnemunde together * One cubic centimeter of the ovary contains : Eggs. By the method of dissociation 2, 500, 000 By the method of sections 5,200,000 Mean 3,850,000 The volume of the ovary of an oyster, of medium size, varies between 6 and 8 cubic centimeters. t Ein Schollen-Bastard. Platessa vulgaris X Rhombus maximus. K. E. H. Krause, in: Archiv des vereins der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Meckleriberg (1881). May, 1882, pp. 119-120. Translated by H. G. Dresel, U. S. N. 342 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. with other "Maischollen," Platessa vulgaris Cuv., and a small Kleist,* Rhombus Icevis Bond. The vender asked me the name of the " Scholle, 1 ' which was unknown to the fisherman who had caught it. The boats had gone out farther than usual, where at times they catch fish with which they are unacquainted. Her attention had been called to the Rhombus, because it was smooth and spotless, and because its head was like that of a Steinbutt, but less tuberculated, and the eyes were on the left side. The above-mentioned plaice, 32 cm long, had a head like that of the turbot; the eyes, also, on the left side, with the tubercles not so prominent as those of the ordinary plaice. The yellow spots common to the plaice were present ; but on the head and upon the upper left side, especially along the curved lateral line, were small epidermal ossi- fications which were rather numerous just behind the gill coverings. These protuberances were not so large as to produce bony areas on the head, but they were considerably larger and more prominent than the small roughness of Platessa fiesus L. The anal fin did not extend so close to the caudal fin as it does in the turbot; the body was also more elongated than that of the latter, or that of the plaice. The teeth were somewhat sharp, but not so sharply pointed as those of the turbot. The meat, in the firmness of the muscular tissue and in taste, approached that of the plaice. There is no doubt but that the specimen, which unfortunately could no longer be obtained, was a bastard. The shape of the head and the curve of the lateral line totally exclude the possibility of a cross between Platessa vulgaris and Platessa fiesus ; accordingly there only remains the possibility of a cross between Platessa vulgaris and Rhombus maximus. Both of these parent forms are considerably smaller in size in the Baltic Sea than in the North Sea. Several years ago a fisherman named Bitgart, of Warnemunde, spoke to me of a kind of flat fish, which he called Blender, which was caught farther out in the sea. At that time, from his incomplete description, I took this species to be Rhombus Icevis, but perhaps it may have been a bastard like the above ; at least, the name points that way. Bostock. * Along the Elbe coast, in Stade and in Hamburg, Rhombus Icevis is commonly called Kleis, m. Kleist f. Kleise; along the Weser (Bremen) it has received the name Tar- butt, probably from the English "turbot," which, however, is the name of the Stein- butt. The fishermen of Travemiinde name Rhombus Icevis " Margretenbiitt," while "Kleis," "Kleishe," and "Plattdisen" are their names for Platessa limanda, called "Shiining" by the Warnemunde fishermen. Compare Lenz in Wittmack, Beitr. zur Fischereista- tistik, 1879. BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 343 RESEARCHES OIV THE GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE OYSTER O. vdulis.)* By P. P. C. HOEK. Last year the administrative commission of the zoological station of the Netherlands Society of Zoology took the initiative in the prosecu- tion of researches relating to the anatomy, embryology, and biology of the oyster. The anatomical portion of these investigations fell to my lot. My work was done in a small wooden building, the station of the society, which was in operation during the last two years in the vicinity of Bergen-op-Zoom. This town, situated on the northernmost arm of the Escaut, is also, so to speak, the center of oyster-culture in Holland. My investigations from the first have related to the generative organs of the oyster. At the end of the first season I published a summary of the work done, in the sixth annual report of the zoological station. Up to the present time, after haviDg again devoted some months to these studies, my results are so far developed that I publish herewith a sum- mary of my investigations up to the end of the year. It will be pub- lished simultaneously in French and Dutch. The most remarkable result of my researches during the past year has been to learn that the generative organs do not consist of localized glands, but that they extend over nearly the whole of the body mass; and also that they do not correspond in structure to the usual defini- tion of such organs (lobulated or botryoidal glands) usually met with in lamellibranchiates. They are not separated on either side of the body from the integument, which in these regions is at the same time the mantle, consisting of a thin layer of connective tissue ; at the fore part of the pericardiac cavity the dorsal and ventral portions, the right and left halves of the organ are in communication. Everywhere we meet with its branched ducts, which communicate with each other, and of which the inner walls are produced into cul-de-sacs directed towards the interior and vertically to the surface of the body. The epithelial cells of these cul-de-sacs are metamorphosed into eggs as well as into spermatogenetic cells. Therefore it is the same cul-de-sac which pro- duces at one time spermatozoa and ova. The past year I had no luck in finding the generative openings. With the exception of M. Laeaze-Duthiers all the authors who have investigated this question have met with the same difficulty. To attain better results than my predecessors, I had employed the method of sec- tions; I isolated portions of the ventral process of the body mass, where * Recherche8 sur les organes genitaux des Huitres. Par M. P. P. C. Hoek. Comptes rendus des seances de VAcademie des Sciences, Paris. Novembre 6, 1882. Translated by John A. Ryder. 344 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. the orifice is found which was observed by M. Lacaze-Duthiers. Un- fortunately, the first series of sections very plainly showed the longitu- dinal cleft near the nervous commissure, which goes from the branchial ganglion to the branchiae, the opening observed by M. Lacaze-Duthiers; but the series of sections was interrupted before this opening was pro- longed into the genital canal. In another series, each preparation con- tained a section of the genital canal, which, however, resembled in every respect the branches (ducts) of the reproductive organ, but of which the special value was not recognized by me. It was from this that I was led to doubt the accuracy of the observation of M. Lacaze-Duthiers. The investigations of the past summer demonstrated to me that it was not M. Lacaze-Duthiers, but myself, that was in error. The longi- tudinal cleft is prolonged as a duct, which is nothing else than the genital canal; this canal commences to branch very near its external orifice; these are the branches, which again divide and spread over nearly the whole surface of the body. There is no trace of a genital papilla ; the position of the genital opening is exactly the same on either side of the body, and it is also this same opening which serves for the organ of Bojanus; thus it is necessary to regard it as the urogenital opening. The efferent canals of the genital organs and the organ of Bojanus meet together near the common opening. We are, therefore, able to assert, with the same right that the efferent duct of the organ of Bojanus ends at that of the genital organ, or the contrary. Analogy has forced us rather to accept the latter view. On the organ of Bojanus of the oyster, the literature is silent. In the excellent work of M. Lacaze-Duthiers (Ann. des Sciences Nat., 4 e s6r., t. IV, 1855) the common oyster has not been studied in this regard, and Von Jhering in 1877 (Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool.), in reviewing what ln?d been published upon the organ of Bojanus in the mollusca, states that our knowledge is null upon this point as regards the oyster. My re- searches also led me to study this organ. The organ of Bojanus is not developed as a very clearly marked structure ; it is composed of membranous folds communicating with each other and with a cavity paved with ciliated epithelial cells, itself opening by a fine canal in the urogenital orifice. The cells of the wall of the canal are provided with vibratile cilia longer than those of the cells of the cavity. This cavity appears to be the same as that which, in the mussel, has been called the collecting canal by M. Sabatier. In the wall of this cavity commences a straight canal, which is continued nearly parallel to the genital duct and ends by opening into the so-called pericardiac cavity. This canal is clothed by cells bearing very long vibratile cilia which meet in the center and guard the passage against any object no matter how small. The membranous folds of the organ of Bojanus extend on to the walls of the pericardiac cavity, and upon the posterior part of the sides of the body, then into that part of the mantle BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 345 which joins the adductor muscle on its ventral side. In my report I will give a detailed description of the organ of Bojanus of the oyster. If there is still the slightest doubt as to the hermaphroditism of the oyster, my researches have shown that, at the time when an oyster is sexually mature, it always functionates as a male as well as a female; it is, therefore, physiologically dioecious. And when the eggs of one oyster are fecundated by the spermatozoa of another, we need not be surprised if the contact of the eggs and spermatozoa takes place in the, interior of the animal. Likewise the fact observed by M. Lacaze- Duthiers and by other authors, that the egg of the oyster is nearly al- ways fecundated at the time of laying, is not surprising. The large number of males also, that is to say, individuals functionating as males, as stated by M. Davaine and M. Lacaze-Duthiers, explains itself. In the case of the oyster, as with most other lamellibranchs, the spermatozoa move and encounter the egg; "the water carrying the sperm in the currents produced by the ciliary movements of the internal surface of the mantle reaches the eggs;" that is, it gets into the genital duct. I think this view of the question is the only one which gives a rational explanation of the facts. NOTE ON THE ORGAN OF BOJANUS IN ON IKE A VXKftlNI C A, GUIEEIN. By JOHN A. RYDER. In March, 1882, I first noticed what I supposed might probably be the organ of Bojanus of the American oyster, but I could not then in- vestigate the matter, so that it was allowed to rest for the time being until a more favorable opportunity should occur to carry out more de- tailed researches. In November, 1882, I first began to make prepara- tions to study the subject by means of sections, the only method by which it was believed possible to arrive at any valuable conclusions. Although I have not yet traced the structure in question in its relation to the pericardiac cavity and the openings of the generative organs, my sections show essentially much the same details of structure as have been described by M. Hoek. As that author observes, the literature of the subject is silent in regard to this structure in the oyster, and of the few allusions to the matter, one is by Huxley,* who says: "In Ostrea and Teredo the renal organ seems to be present in only a very rudimeutary form." He then alludes to the researches of M. Lacaze-Duthiers. That it is present in a rudimentary form is the fact, as an examination of the structure in question has proved. In Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen des Thierreichs, III, Malacosoa, by Keferstein, on page 388, it is remarked, in effect, that the organ of Bojanus in Ostrea is present as a mere ap- pendage of the ventricle. In "Forest and Stream," under date of No- *Anat. I u vertebrates, p. 411, New York, 1878. 346 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. veinber 30, 1882, I described this organ in the following terms: "Be- sides, no anatomist, to my knowledge, has very definitely located the organs of Bojanus or quasi-renal apparatus of the animal, or indicated the apparently close relation of this paired organ to the openings of the generative ducts. It is true these structures are very rudimentary, but seem to be present in a slightly developed condition, in somewhat the same relation to the great adductor as in Pecten, only that they lie close against the mantle at" either insertion of the muscle and on its ventral side. Their extent is sometimes marked by brownish tissue in their walls." In order to see these structures at all it is necessary to open the ani- mal with the greatest possible care, in order that the mantle and the underlying delicate tissue of the organs of Bojanus which lie close against the lower side of the muscular insertion be not lacerated be- yond recognition. The body-mass, which is prolonged backwards below the adductor and containing the first bend of the intestine, lies just be- low the organ, and in fact a suspensor membrane connects the two. This suspensor has the same structure as the mantle. The form of the organ of Bojanus in the oyster, taken as a whole and viewed from the side, is somewhat sickle-shaped, and clasps the opposite ends of the ad- ductor next the mantle on either side for an extent of about three-quar- ters of an inch, and rarely extends a very little way forward upon the floor of the pericardiac chamber. In section through its most enlarged part it is somewhat triangular or trihedral, and its inner non-canalicu- lated portion involves more or less completely at this point the parieto- splanchnic ganglia, as is shown by my sections. It is a paired organ, and the portions of opposite sides are about equally developed. Their dimensions, as compared with the same organs in Unio, are very meager indeed. When examined under the microscope, sections from the mid-region of the organ show several large canals, six or seven, the walls of which are clothed with an epithelium provided with very long cilia, which hang freely into their cavities. These larger canals are placed near the center of the trihedral body of the organ. Around the larger canals numer- ous smaller canals and induplicatures of membrane are aggregated, which are clothed with a less conspicuously ciliated internal epithelium. These smaller canals evidently communicate with the larger ones, and are probably the secretory portions of the organ, but no crystalloidal bodies in the form of urates were detected, such as may be seen in the renal organ of Arcapexata, for example. The smaller ducts and canals of the organ encroach upon the connective tissue of the adjacent portion of the mantle to some extent. The color of the tissue of the organ in life is frequently dark-brown, so that its extent may be clearly made out in an oyster which has been very carefully opened. Oftener, how- ever, the organ can scarcely be distinguished from the neighboring structures, except by its richer yellowish color. Its greatest develop- BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 347 meiit is attained at the lower side of the adductor muscle, just where the posterior sickle-shaped column of white fibers comes iuto contact with the larger grayish oval anterior column. Just in the angle formed by these parallel muscular columns the organ is most massive, and just here too lies the parieto-splanchnic ganglionic masses of nervous matter, which are more or less enveloped by the external and perhaps indifferent portions of the organ. As before stated, I have not taken the pains to demonstrate the open- ing of the organ into the pericardiac cavity and the generative canals, but as already hinted in my article in "Forest and Stream," which was written before I had seen M. Hoek's paper, I believe such a connection altogether probable from what is known of the relations of the homolo- gous organs in other lamellibranchs. Just below the vicinity of the thickest portion of the organ are situated the external openings of the generative ducts, which, as observed by M. Hoek, are not marked by papillar elevations. M. Hoek's observations on the generative ducts of Ostrea edulis agree with my own on 0. virginica. From the openings of the ducts forward over the sides and dorsal and ventral surfaces of the animal, beneath the mantle-layer, they branch over the greater portion of the body- mass, receiving the generative products from the underlying follicles, which have a generally vertical direction, and stand at right angles to the courses of the ducts and their ramifications. The sexual characteristics of 0. edulis, 0. angulata, and 0. virginica have already been discussed by me in another essay which has preceded this, so that there is no need of a further elaboration of that matter here. More recently two notices by M. Bouchon-Brandely have been placed in my hands by Professor Baird, which discuss this matter from still another point of view than my own, viz, the microscopical and his- tological aspect of the subject. Washington, D. C, December 25, 1882. A SIMPLE TEST TO LEARN IF FISH OVA ARE IMPREGNATED.* By PROFESSOR NUSSBAUM. The development of the eggs of game fishes [salmonoids], as is well known, is relatively far advanced before the fish-culturist is positively assured that embryos are developing normally in the egg. A method, therefore, which would enable us to shorten this period of probation would not only be desirable, but also of value under certain circum- stances, since it is certainly annoying, after having had them in water * Ein einfaches Verfahren zur Erkennung der geluvgenen Befruchtung von Fischeiern, von Professor Nussoaum in Bonn. Deutsche Fischer ei-Zeitung, VI, No. 5, Jan. 30, 1883. Translated by John A. Ryder. 348 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. for four or five weeks, spending time and care over them, to eventually find, when the "eye-spots" do not develop, that all our trouble was wasted and that no development at all took place. It is true one may, with proper preparations and with the help of the pocket-lens or microscope, follow the development while there may be no external signs of the process evident. This method of making the test is, however, not adapted to the purposes of the practical fisk-cult- urist, who will have better success by the following method: If fertilized fish ova are placed in a 50 per cent, solution of wine vine- gar [Any ordinary vinegar will probably be found to answer just as well — Tr.J the embryo, even during the very first stages of development, will become apparent to the eye lying on the transparent yelk. The acetic acid contained in the mixture, one part water to one part wine vinegar, causes the material of the embryo proper to coagulate while the yelk remains clear. A short time after the ova are laid in this mixture, and during the first week after impregnation, a white circle at one pole of the egg should become apparent, and in the course of the second week a cylindrical white streak running from the edge of the circle towards its center should be evident. If these features are not developed by the test, the eggs have not been fertilized, and are, therefore, worthless. We will not complicate the application of the method by describing other details of the development, but would merely suggest that when a lot of ova are fertilized a small portion should be left unimpregnated. These could then be tested in comparison with the fertilized ova from day to day, using say three eggs at a time of each lot. The observant culturist could by this means construct for himself a scale of develop- ment covering the period embraced by his experiments. At a lower temperature the development is slower than at a higher one. The dif- ference of appearance between fertilized and unfertilized ova treated by the method will demonstrate its utility. Whoever does not trust to the method for the evidence of death of the eggs until after five weeks subsequent to impregnation, must of course wait. Director Tiefenthaler, of Kolzen, has had the kindness to test the method practically, and finds it useful to fish-culturists. [A very little practice, it seems to the translator, would serve to enable any person of ordinary intelligence to apply this method or sev- eral others which might be suggested. Other substances which would answer the same purpose would be dilute solutions of picric or chromic acid, of not more than one to one-half per cent, or one part to two hun- dred of water. Vinegar or acetic acid of the shops may also be used ; the last to be diluted in the proportions of about one part in ten of water. The acids cited will coagulate and cause the germ disk to turn white or yellow in a few hours. Chromic is better than picric acid, as it coagu- lates the yelk also, but turns the latter much darker than the embryo or embryonic disk. — Tr.] BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 349 NOTES ON THE I- A 71 PRF V M-S» E J ICOll YZON HIKE. By G. BROWN GOODS. In the fresh and brackish waters of the United States occur several species of the lamprey family. The habits of this group of fishes are not well understood, and in the present discussion we shall be obliged to rely to a considerable degree upon the observations of European zoologists. In the United States these fishes, of whatever species, are generally known as "lampreys" and "lamper-eels," these names being also in use in England, where one of the smaller species, P. branchialis, is also known as the " pride," "prid," or "sandpiper." The name "nine-eye" is also common in England, a name which reappears on the continent in the " neun-tiuge" and " neun- augel" of Germany and Austria, and the "nejon ogon" of Scandinavia. This curious name has its origin in the eye-like appearance of the circu- lar branchial openings, of which a considerable number appear on either side of the head. In the common "nine- eye" of England, however, there are really only seven, and, even if the eye be counted, only eight eye-like circles upon each side. In Germany the name most commonly in use is "pricke" or "bricke," while in France "lamproie" is their usual appellation, and in Italy "lampreta." The lampreys are among the lowest and least specialized of fishes; although in form resembling the eels, they belong to a very different group, which, by Gill and others of our best authorities, has been con- sidered a distinct class, and are not even entitled to be called fishes. So slight has been the progress in the scientific study of the lampreys that but little can be definitely stated about their geographical distri- bution, excepting that they occur in the fresh waters and along the coasts of the temperate regions of both hemispheres. The largest and best known species, and the only one which has at present any com- mercial value, is Petromyzon americanas, by most authorities believed to be identical with the P. marinus of Europe,* which occurs in the streams and estuaries of our eastern coast from .Nova Scotia as far south at least as Cape Hatteras. The key to the habits of the lampreys is found in the peculiar arrange- ment of their great suctorial mouth. In P. marinus, according to Emile Blanchard, this is completely circular, and forms a great sucker enor- mously capacious, surrounded by a fleshy lip studded with tentacles and supported within by a cartilaginous framework. This mouth is covered over its entire interior surface with strong teeth, arranged in concentric circles — some single, others double — the larger occupying the central portion, and the smaller forming the exterior rows. A large * Giinther's Catalogue FiBhes of the British Museum, 8, p. 501. 350 BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. double tooth, situated above the aperture of the mouth, indicates the situation of the upper jaw; a large cartilage, supporting seven or eight great teeth, represents the lower jaw. The tongue also carries three large teeth, deeply serrated upon their edges. The structure of the intestine, which, as- in the sharks, is provided with an extensive spiral valve, indicates that these animals are chiefly carnivorous in diet. They are said to feed upon worms, insects, and decaying animal matter. Dr. Benecke, of Konigsberg, Germany, and others have found their stomachs full of fish eggs. The structure of the mouth, however, would teach us, even in default of observations upon their customany mode of feeding, that they are semi-parasitic in their habits, attaching them- selves to large fish by suctorial action, and, while attached, tearing the flesh of the fish with their marvelous mincing machine, which is com- posed of the teeth within the circular mouth, while they suck the blood of their victim. They are often found attached to the larger fishes, such as shad, sturgeon, and sharks. Captain Atwood states that small lampreys of a bluish color are found attached to various species of fish in Massachusetts Bay, such as cod, haddock, and mackerel. They cling to the side of the fish beueath the pectoral and suck their blood until the flesh of their prey seems as white as paper. There can be but little doubt that to the lampreys may be credited an immense destruction of the various food-fishes which enter estuaries and rivers. It is by no means uncommon for fishermen to find them attached to halibut and other large species caught at sea. Lampreys are found far inland, ascending most of the creeks and rivers of Central Europe and of temperate North America far toward their sou